ixes, beaus, cherubs, criterions, encomiums, memorandums, seraphs. Some writers give the plural in s to other words in this list; as, calxes, apparatuses, mediums, focuses, stamens.

Genius has genii when ærial spirits are meant; but when persons of genius are meant, geniuses.

Index has indices when referring to algebraic quantities; but indexes when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents.

Animalcule has animalcules, or animalculæ.

To denote the plural of mere characters, s preceded by an apostrophe (') is added; as, two a's; three 5's.

Some words derived from foreign languages have no singular; as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutia. So, vertebrata, infusoria, and some other scientific terms.

Abstract and substantial nouns, from the nature of their signification, have no plural. There are no such words as whitenesses, hastes, golds, honesties.

But where nouns which are usually abstract or substantial are used as common, they may have the plural form.

Such nouns as scissors, lungs, tongs, have no singular, because they denote objects which consist of two parts.

Some nouns in the singular number have a plural form; such are molasses, measles, etc. Oats, according to analogy, would be in the singular, since it is a substantial noun, like wheat, rye, etc.; but it is usually construed as plural.

EXERCISES.

Tell the plural form of the following words.

Table, door, chair, step, window, stove, oven, shovel, star, sun, moon, plant, candlestick, monarch, farmer, face, place,

case.

Box, fox, miss, wish, lash, lass, loss, inch, watch, atlas.

What is said about genius?

What is said about index?-animalcule? How is the plural of mere characters formed?

What is said of abstract and substantial nouns?

What is said of such nouns as scissors, etc.?

Name some nouns which have no sin-What is said of molasses, etc.?

gular.

Volcano, hero, cargo, veto, calico, potato, buffalo, memento, mulatto, manifesto, octavo, motto.

Folio, bagnio, seraglio, punctilio, nuncio, bamboo, cuckoo,

cameo.

Story, history, mystery, lady, baby, fancy, study, duty, cherry, berry, theory, fury, ally, sty, entry.

Day, play, chimney, alley, essay, ray, turkey, kidney, galley, valley.

Calf, self, beef, leaf, sheaf, shelf, life, grief, hoof, brief, roof, scarf, chief.

Child, ox, man, woman, tooth, foot, goose, mouse, louse, die, penny, brother.

Deer, sheep, swine, vermin, means, odds, news.

Handful, spoonful, cupful, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, commander-in-chief, court-martial.

Antithesis, apparatus, etc.

GENDER.

Gender is a modification of nouns to denote the distinction of sex.

There are four genders-the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter.

Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender; as, man, boy, lion.

Nouns which denote females are of the feminine gender; as, woman, girl, lioness.

Nouns which are applied to living beings without reference to sex are of the common gender; as, parent, cousin, sheep.

What is gender?
How many genders?

What nouns are of the masculine gender? -of the feminine ?-of the common?

Nouns which denote things without sex are of the neuter gender; as, tree, paper, book.

Note. The word neuter means neither. There is a male sex, and a female sex, but no neuter sex; neuter gender is merely a grammatical term applied to the names of objects which have no distinction of sex. So the term common gender is a grammatical term applied merely to the words, and does not imply any common sex.

Remarks.—1. As none but living beings have the distinction of sex, the names of inanimate objects are, of course, neuter.

2. For some classes of living beings we have terms which are applied to every individual in the class without reference to sex, that is, nouns of the common gender; and also terms denoting the males and females, that is, nouns of the masculine and feminine genders.

Thus, sheep is of the common gender, ram of the masculine, and ewe of the feminine.

3. For other classes we have nouns of the common gender only; and when we wish to denote the males and females, we join to the nouns of the common gender words that point out the sex of the objects.

Thus, sparrow is of the common gender, and cock-sparrow denotes the male, and hen-sparrow the female.

4. For other classes we have no nouns of the common gender, but only those which denote the males and the females.

Thus, horse is of the masculine, and mare of the feminine gender; but there is no name applied to every individual in the class without reference

to sex.

In such cases, if we wish to denote the whole class, we either

(a) Use both the masculine and feminine nouns: as, "Brothers and sisters should love each other;" or,

() Employ a circumlocution: as, "The children of the same parents should love each other;" or,

(c) Use the term applied to that sex, whether male or female, to which the attention is most frequently directed, to include the whole class. Thus, when we say, "Horses are graminivorous animals," we include mares; and when we say, "Geese are noisy," we include ganders.

EXAMPLES.

1. Of words which are applied to every individual in the class without reference to sex; the male and female being denoted by other words.

What nouns are of the neuter gender?
Of what gender are inanimate objects?
What is said of such words as sheep and
sparrow?-of horse, mare, etc.?

Give some examples of words which are applied to every individual in the class, other words being connected with the name of the object to denote the sex.

2. Of names applied to every individual in words being connected with the name of the

..spawner.

...hen.

the class; other object to denote

Feminine.

.female relative. .maid-servant.

.hen-sparrow.

..she-goat.

...turkey hen.

3. Of different words applied to each of the sexes; no term

To this class belong the following, in which the feminine noun is formed by adding a termination to the masculine, which in many instances undergoes some change. They are chiefly appellations derived from the offices and occupations of mankind.

The feminine termination ess is the regular English terminaGive some examples of different words applied to each of the sexes, no term common to both sexes being in use.

tion; the other feminine terminations belong to foreign lan

To these add widower, widow; the masculine in this case being formed from the feminine.

Remarks.-1. When nouns of the common gender are used, we may often determine, from some circumstance or other, whether males or females are referred to; but not from the nouns themselves. So far as the nouns are concerned, sex is left entirely out of view. It will not do to say that the nouns are either masculine and feminine, or masculine or feminine. In such a sentence as this, "John visited his two cousins," we cannot say that cousins is masculine, for both may be females; we cannot say it is feminine, for both may be males, we cannot say that cousins is masculine and feminine, for both cousins may be males, or both may be females; we cannot say that

When nouns of the common gender are used, can we determine whether males or females are referred to?

* Also written ambassador.