Remarks.-1. These nouns are called abstract, because they are the names of qualities, etc., abstracted; that is, considered apart from the objects to which they belong. Thus, honesty does not really exist without being connected with some individual, but the mind abstracts it from all individuals, and considers it as an object existing by itself: as "Honesty is the best policy." So destruction is considered apart from any destroyer. 2. These are usually classed among common nouns, though not very properly. An abstract noun does not denote a class of objects. The word honesty, for example, denotes a quality which is found in many individuals, but it is always the same quality; but the word boy, when applied to Thomas, does not mean the same individual that it does when applied to John. Abstract nouns, when used as such, have no plural, and do not admit of a, or an, or one, before them, as every noun does which denotes a class. In these respects abstract resemble proper nouns. 3. The same word may be either an abstract or a common noun, according to the meaning attached to it. Thus, when we say, "Virtue is lovely," we use the word virtue as the name of a single quality; and it is an abstract noun; but when we speak of the virtues of charity, of justice, of temperance, etc., the word is applied to a class, and is a common noun. Substantial nouns are such as denote the substance of which objects are composed. Such are the names of metals, grain, etc.; as, iron, gold, wheat, snow, fire. common nouns. Remarks.—1. These, as well as abstract nouns, are usually classed with But they do not, strictly speaking, denote classes of objects. Like abstract nouns, they have no plural, and do not admit a, or an, or one, before them. 2. Substantial, as well as abstract nouns, may become common nouns by varying the sense. Thus, when we say, "Snow is white," we use snow as a substantial noun; but when we say, snow fell last night," we mean a body of snow, and use the word as a common noun. The words cottons, grasses, etc., are often used instead of kinds of grass, etc.; these words are in such cases used as common nouns. To nouns belong number, gender, case, and person NUMBER. Number is a modification of nouns to denote. whether one object is meant, or more than one. Why are abstract nouns so called? What belong to nouns? There are two numbers; the singular and the plural. The singular number denotes one object; as, chair, tree. The plural number denotes more than one; as. chairs, trees. EXERCISES. 1. Tell the number of each of the following nouns. Book, knife, pens, chairs, table, candle, hats, bonnet, handkerchief, feet, hands, eye, ears, children, ox, mice, geese. teeth, oxen, leaves, wives, wife, women, men. 2. Tell the number of each of the nouns in the exercises on pages 15, 16, 17. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. The regular mode of forming the plural is by adding s to the singular; as, book, books; page, pages. When the singular ends with a sound which cannot unite with 8, then es is added; as, church, churches; box, boxes ; kiss, kisses; brush, brushes. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es; as, negro, negroes; wo, woes; hero, heroes. Most persons Exception.-Two has twos, because o has the sound of oo. write cantos, juntos, etc. It would be better to have uniformity. Other nouns in o add s only; as, folio, folios. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into ie, and add s; as, lady, ladies; fly, flies. Other nouns in y do not change the y; as, day, days; valley, valleys. Proper nouns do not change the y when they are used in the plural; as, the Henrys. How many numbers? What does the singular number denote ?— the plural? What is the regular mode of forming the How do nouns in o form the plural? The following nouns change ƒ and fe into ve, and add s:— leaf, calf, self, half, beef, loaf, sheaf, shelf, wolf, wharf, thief, elf, wife, knife, life. Thus, leaves, calves, knives, etc. Staff makes staves; but the compounds of staff are regular; as, flag-staff, flag-staffs. Other nouns in ƒ and fe are regular: fife, fifes; grief, griefs, The following nouns form the plural more irregularly. Kine was formerly the plural of cow. Brother has, besides the regular plural, brethren, which is now used only in the solemn style. Die when it means a stamp, has a regular plural. We use pence when referring merely to the value, and pennies when referring to the number of coins. Thus, six pence may be all in one coin; but six pennies are six separate coins. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, means, odds, news. When people signifies a community or body of persons, it is a collective noun in the singular number, and has sometimes, though rarely, a plural; as, "Many peoples, and nations, and tongues, and kings."—Revelation x, 11. When it signifies persons, it is plural; as, "Many people were present." The words, alms, amends, riches, wages, and pains (in the sense of laborious effort), are sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently as plural. Bellows is by some considered as plural, like tongs, scissors, etc.; as, "To make a good orator of a pair of bellows."Tatler, No. 70. By others it is considered both singular and plural. How do nouns in fand fe form the plural? | Name the nouns which are alike in both What is the plural of child, etc.? What is said of kine? What is said of brother?-of die ?-of pence and pennies? numbers. What is said of people?-of alms, and amends?-of bellows, etc.? Gallows is used by some as both singular and plural; others make the plural gallowses. See Webster's Dictionary. Fish has a regular plural; as, "Two small fishes," but fish is often used as plural; as, “We are to blame for eating these fish." Trout, salmon, etc., are both singular and plural. Such names of sciences as mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, metaphysics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, are properly plural, though they are sometimes construed as singular. Good writers, to avoid a harsh construction, often join the word science to these terms; as, "The science of politics contains two parts," instead of "Politics contains two parts." Horse and foot, when they denote bodies of soldiers, are plural; as, "The army consisted of five hundred horse and five thousand foot." Sail, when it denotes a collection of ships, is plural; as, "The fleet consisted of forty sail." Cannon and shot are sometimes used as plural. Yoke is sometimes plural; as, "Five hundred yoke of oxen." -Bible. Most compounds form their plural regularly, by adding s to the singular; as, handful, handfuls; maid-servant, maid-serv ants; outpouring, outpourings. But sometimes the noun of the compound, when it comes first, is treated as if not coalescing with the other parts, and the s is added to the simple noun, and not to the end of the compound word; as, father-in-law, fathers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial; knight errant, knights-errant. Man-servant changes both the simple words; as, men-servants. So, women-servants. See Gen. xx. 14. Proper names take the plural form when two or more persons of the same name are classed together; as, "The Mortons." So, when a title (Miss, Mr., etc.) is prefixed; as, "The Miss Mortons ;" "The Mr. Andersons ;" What is said of gallows?-of fish?-of | "The Miss Broughtons How do compounds form the plural? 22 NUMBER. could not resist the example."-Miss Burns, in Evelina. “The Miss Browns."-Maria Edgeworth. The title in such cases may be considered as an adjective; thus, the word Miss comprehends the ideas expressed by the adjectives unmarried and female; or, the title and the name may be considered as forming a compound name. If the persons are spoken of individually, the title takes the plural form; as, "Misses Julia and Maria Morton ;” «j George and Thomas Anderson." ;" "Messrs.* Several nouns derived from foreign languages retain the plural forms of the languages from which they are derived. Singular. Plural. Antithesis... ..antitheses. Singular. Hiatus.... Plural. .hiatus. Apparatus. .apparatus. Apex.... ..apices. Appendixt. Arcanum. Automaton ..... automata. Axis ...axes. Basis ..bases. Beaut beaux. ..appendices. ...arcana. Hippopotamus ..hippopotami. Hypothesis.....hypotheses. Ignis fatuus. Magus... Medium Memorandum‡..memoranda. Metamorphosis..metamorphoses. ..ignes fatui. .laminæ. ..magi. ...media. Calx. calces. Monsieur... .messieurs. Cherubt .cherubim. Parenthesis. .... .parentheses. Cicerone.. .ciceroni. Phenomenon.... .phenomena. Crisis.... ..crises. Radius Criteriont. ...criteria. Series ..radii. ...series. Datum .data. Serapht ...seraphim. Desideratum....desiderata. Species .species. Diæresis.. .diæreses. Stamen ..stamina. Effluvium .effluvia. Stimulus. ..stimuli. Ellipsis. ..ellipses. Stratum strata. Emphasis.......emphases. Superfices ..superfices. Encomiumt. .encomia. Thesis.... Erratum ..errata. Vertex... theses. vertices. Focus .foci. Vortex Formulat .formulæ. Virtuoso.. . vortices. virtuosi. Genus... -genera. The words marked have also the plural in s; as, append When does the title take the plural form? foreign languages?-What is the plural *Messrs. is an abbreviation of the word Messieurs, the plural of the French word Monsieur, which corresponds to the English word Mister. |