the province of Canton. The Tsoong-tuh, o., as Europeans call him, the "viceroy," who is the chief ruler of the province of Canton, as well as of the adjoining one, and to whom the Foo-yuen of each is subject, or, rather, inferior in rank only, resides in the new city, as does also the Hae-kwan, or "Hoppo*," as we call him, who is the principal custom-house officer, or the "Chief Commissioner of the Customs," if we may use the expression, and who ranks as third in the province, though he has no jurisdiction, except in matters concerning trade.

The suburbs, which in their general character are said to resemble the city proper, spread on the outside of this wall towards the West, towards the South, and towards the East; there is nothing but open country beyond the wall towards the North. Towards the West, or up the river from the city, they spread out into the form of an irregular triangle, opening to the N.W., and having for its two sides the river on the South, and the Western wall of the city on the East. On the South they occupy the whole space between the wall and river. On the East they are much less extensive than on the West. There are no buildings on the outside of the city wall towards the North, except a few small huts near the principal gate. Taken collectively, the suburbs are scarcely less extensive, or less populous than the city within the walls.

According to the learned Dr. Morrison, in the fourth year of the emperor Ying-tsung, or A. D. 1067, "Canton was first walled in at the expense of 50,000 taëls, (about 17,000l.,) surrounding a space of 7 le, about two English miles; previous to that the people lived in the fields. It was done as a defence against the people of Cochin-China, who frequently invaded and plundered Canton."

WALLS AND CANALS OF THE CITY.

THE entire circuit of the walls which surround the two divisions of the city proper, is variously estimated by the Chinese. In an English magazine, published, under the name of the Chinese Repository, in the suburbs of Canton, the writer says, "at a quick step we have walked the whole distance in little less than two hours, and think it cannot exceed six English miles." On the South side, or that turned towards the river, the wall runs nearly due East and West, parallel to the bank, and distant from it perhaps eighty or a hundred yards. On the North, where the city stands partly upon the acclivity of the hills in the rear of the wall, it takes a serpentine course, and its base, at the highest point on the hill, is, perhaps, two hundred or three hundred feet above the surface of the river.

The walls are composed partly of stone and partly of bricks; the former is chiefly coarse sandstone, and forms the foundation, and the lower part of the walls and the arches of the gates. The bricks are small, and of a soft texture. "In several places, particularly along the east side of the city, the elements have made such inroads on the walls, as to afford satisfactory evidence, that before the prowess of a modern foe they would present but a feeble resistance." They rise nearly perpendicular, and vary in height from twenty-five to thirty-five, or forty feet. In thickness they measure twenty or twenty-five feet. They are higher, and more substantial, on the north side than on any other, and are said to be so because, in that direction, hostile bands would be the most likely to make an attack. A line of battlements, with embrasures at intervals of a few feet, are raised on the top of the wall around the whole city; these the Chinese call Ching-jin, literally, "city men," and in the rear of them there is a broad pathway. There are two "wings," or short projecting walls, which stretch out from the main walls, one at the south-eastern and the other at the south-western corner of the city; these were designed to block up the narrow space between the walls and the ditches. Through each of them there is a gate, in every respect similar to the gates of the city. There are some cannon mounted on the walls of the city, but its fortifications we are told could oppose no effectual resistance to European troops and artillery.

"Not a few of the visiters," says the Chinese Repository, " and not a little of the merchandise brought together here, are conveyed into the city by means of canals or ditches. There are several of these; one of the largest of them extends along the whole length of the wall on the east side of

The proper name of this officer, who is appointed immediately by the emperor, is Hae-kwan, or Keen-tuh, and sometimes Kuan-poo; the name " Hoppo," which Europeans have given him, is a corruption of Hoo-poo, the name of the " Board of Revenue."

the city, and another on the west side. Between these two, and communicating with them, there is a third canal, which runs along near the wall, on the north side of the new city, so that boats can enter on the west, pass through the city, and out at the eastern side, and vice versa. There are other canals in the eastern and western suburbs, and one in the southern. Into these large channels a great number of smaller ones flow; these the Chinese call the veins of the city. There are also several reservoirs, but none of them are of great extent. Much of the water for the use of the inhabitants is supplied from the river and canals; wells are frequent. Rain-water is employed also, and for tea, &c., fine wholesome water is plentifully furnished from several springs, which break out on the north of the city, both within and without the walls. There are several bridges, some built of stone, thrown over these canals."

GATES OF THE CITY.

THE gates of the city are sixteen in number; four of them, however, lead through the wall which separates the old from the new city; so that there are only twelve outer gates, each of which is distinguished by a name descriptive of its position. One of these gates is fifteen feet wide and twelve high. A few soldiers are stationed at each of the gates, to watch them by day, and to close and guard them at night. They are shut at an early hour in the evening, and opened again at dawn of day. Except on special occasions, no one is allowed to pass in or out during the nightwatches, but a small fee will usually open the way, though the acceptance of it always exposes the keepers to punish

ment.

American writer, 66

Both at the great gate and at the smaller gates, there are persons stationed to prevent foreigners from entering, and if the curiosity of some inquisitive stranger should lead him to step within the forbidden precincts, he is soon compelled to make a speedy retreat. "At one time," says an our party passed a short distance within, but were instantly stopped by the guards; and the multitude all shouted as if something were wrong. Canton within was to all appearance what Canton was without." The stranger may, however, derive some amusement from the scene which presents itself to his eye, through the opening of the gateway. "Several mandarins," says Mr. Bennett, "would occasionally be seen passing in their chairs, as well as some of the superior class of Chinese small-eyed beauties, borne in a kind of sedan, upon the shoulders of coolies."

66

The great gate of the city has been oftentimes the witness of very curious scenes, arising out of that regulation of the Chinese government which prohibits Europeans from holding any direct communication with the great functionaries of the state. "Foreigners," says one of the edicts, are not permitted voluntarily to present statements to the government; they are indebted to the clemency of the emperor for their trade, as also for the permission to tread the ground, and to eat the herbs, in common with the Chinese. If, after the publication of this edict, it occurs that foreigners presume of their own account to make application, the viceroy will, on discovery, request his Majesty's permission to punish them severely." The only course which Europeans are allowed to pursue when they wish to bring any matter under the notice of the government is, to present a statement to the "Hong Merchants," who are a native corporation recognised by the government, and invested with peculiar privileges and responsibilities; by these persons it is forwarded, or supposed to be forwarded, to the viceroy. But as most of the grievances of which Europeans complain,-such as overcharge of duties, stoppage of trade, &c., are sources of profit to the Hong merchants themselves, or the results of their own acts, it is not at all surprising that these statements should seldom reach the viceroy; and when, after repeated applications through the prescribed channel, the complaint remains still unattended to, it is naturally concluded that they never have been communicated to that officer. Accordingly, the foreign residents have hit upon a more efficacious mode of proceeding, which they resort to in these desperate cases, and which is nothing less than to invade the city in a body through the great gate, and by creating a disturbance, to attract the attention of the officers within, and perhaps of the viceroy himself." "The gate of the city of Canton," says Mr. Holman, "has invariably, and throughout the whole period of history to which we possess an authentic guide,

been the place where foreigners have made their appeal for justice to the Chinese authorities. Should the publicity be relinquished, it is feared, and not without reason, that justice will be relinquished also."

The execution of this final measure, requires, however, according to Mr. Reynolds, "resolution and numbers united. The communication to be presented is prepared with the utmost secrecy, and the hour of entry fixed; when some dozen or twenty meet, and, with clubs in their hands, move directly for the gate, pushing over, and knocking down everything which comes in their way. They then boldly enter the gate, the guard protesting to the contrary notwithstanding. A tremendous tumult is now created, and every Chinese presents himself as a barrier to their progress. The party then come to a stand, their object being attained; for the authorities hearing that strangers are within the walls, send a messenger to demand the cause, when they present their memorial, certain of its reaching the proper hands. Having thus by violence, and real hazard, effected the object of their visit, they retire from within the wall, and immediately the tumult ceases. On several occasions they have been obliged to resort to this method, which was always successful without a serious accident."

Previous to the year 1825, foreigners had no legitimate mode of passing between Canton and Macao without paying irregular fees, to the amount of about fifty pounds, on each trip, which was found so serious a grievance, that it was determined to make a vigorous effort to obtain its discontinuance. Accordingly, after various petitions were presented, without effect, through the usual channel of the Hong merchants, thirty-seven foreigners, of different nations, resolved to rush into the city, to obtain an audience of the viceroy. On a particular day they set out, and made their way, in spite of all opposition, through the great gate; but although they got a safe footing in the city, they were not sufficiently acquainted with the topography of it to know the exact situation of the viceroy's palace; they therefore went forward at random, and eagerly made for the first large building they saw, which, upon entering, they discovered to be a Joss-house, or temple of" Joo;" observing a soldier run out of it, and supposing that he would go

direct to the viceroy's palace, to repeat the extraordinary circumstance of seeing so many foreigners in the city, they immediately followed him; after a short, but very smart run, they came to another large house, and seeing a number of soldiers in the yard, they made sure that it was the palace. All this was the work of a few minutes; indeed, from their rapid movements, they astonished the Chinese, and were actually in the hall before any of them could assemble to obstruct the passage. Here they soon discovered that they had entered the residence of the commandant of that part of the city; and after a time they were met by the Hong merchants, who used every means of persuasion and of artifice, to induce them to retire, the mandarins in the mean while collecting troops to surround and intimidate them. At last, after various ineffectual threats, and a refusal to receive their petition, the Hong merchants agreed, as the dusk of the evening approached, that if the foreigners would quietly and speedily leave [the city, they would undertake to have the obnoxious tax wholly removed. With this assurance, the invaders consented to leave the house, promising to bow as they passed to two mandarins, who were sitting at the outer gate. They then quietly departed, but when they came abreast of the mandarins, they were stopped to hear another harangue, which was interpreted by the linguist thus,-" that they were now supposed to have erred though ignorance: but whoever should be again caught within the gates of the city, should be put to death." At the same time, the chief mandarin passed his hand round the neck of one of the British merchants among the body, to intimate that he would lose his head if he should ever venture on a repetition of so audacious a proceeding. On the next day an edict was published, alleging, that each of these foreigners had been tied to a soldier's back, and so carried out of the city, to be placed in custody of the Hong merchants, there to await the punishment due to

so heinous an offence!

"It happens, however, sometimes," says a French writer, "that these expeditions terminate to the disadvantage of the assailants; when the Chinese can get a warning of them beforehand, they lie in wait in the neighbouring streets, and in their turn apply the club to the shoulders of the petitioners."

DIE SCHACHSPIELER.-THE CHESS

PLAYERS.

BY MORITZ RETZSCH.

Is not this type well cut, in every part;

Full of rich cunning, filled with Zeuxian art?-QUARLES.

We return with pleasure to notice the works of this gifted artist; and now present to our readers a copy of one of them, which appears to us astonishing in its conception and execution, and will, if we mistake not,

become the best known of all that he has executed.

Retzsch's several published outlines are familiar to us; and, although there is not a single instance of cross-shading, no colour of any kind, the interest they excite impels us to return to them again and again; and every time we look at them, we see some new beauty. So completely, indeed, do they take possession of our minds, that we forget the total absence of those incidental aids which the higher

branches of the art call in to their assistance.

What, then, is the secret of Moritz Retzsch ?—" the witchcraft he has used?"-We should answer,-A deep moral feeling, which appeals directly to the heart, a perfect comprehension of his subject, and correct drawing. In this latter quality, indeed, he is almost without a rival in modern days. He has been compared to Flaxman, who finished some most expressive outlines, but whose classical severity of style must always fall short in popularity, of Retzsch, with his kindly household feelings, "common Nature's daily food," mingled, occasionally, with all that is awful and sublime.

We are fond of emblems and allegories. The old wood-cut emblems of Alciatus* contain a mine of good and useful advice; those of George Wither, engraved by Crispin Pass, and "quickened with metrical illustrations, both moral and divine," may be examined with advantage by the candid reader; and even Quarles, though full of strange fancies, quaintly expressed, speaks a language sufficiently intelligible for the improvement of the heart and mind; and this, we maintain, ought to be the chief aim of art, as well as of literature.

There are, perhaps, not a few persons who, however unwilling to listen to instruction in the common course of teaching, may, by the ocular language" of a well-imagined emblem, have been informed of their fault and danger, or reminded of certain duties, and risen up from the contemplation of the subject, wiser and better than they sat down. This remark may, in some happy instances, be found true with reference to our present engraving, the subject of which is, SATAN PLAYING AT CHESS WITH MAN, FOR HIS SOUL.

The peculiar powers of the artist have here a fine field for their exertion. The finely-formed, but wicked and terrific, countenance of Satan is directed towards his victim, whom he is watching with a wariness and stern purpose, that make us tremble for the beautiful and youthful antagonist. The fallen angel, who "was a murderer from the beginning," is robed in a mantle, with broad folds; one hand is supporting his chin, as if he were intent on the effect of some deeply-plotted move, and the other grasps a figure of Peace, which he is taking from the board. The young man rests his head upon his hand, as if he were fearful of impending ruin, and desirous of averting it. Between these two figures, and behind the board, stands the Good Genius of Man, anxious and distressed, as if fearful for the youth.

An Italian who wrote, in Latin, early in the sixteenth century, and whose volume of emblems went through many editions, and obtained universal credit.

The attitude of this angel is beautiful; the countenance is of a pensive cast, the hands are clasped, the wings half-spread; the head is gently turned towards the important charge, and we feel afraid, that at the next move those wings will bear the guardian spirit away.

With regard to the Chessmen on the side of the demon, the King represents himself; his Queen is Pleasure, pressing forward in front of all; his officers are, Indolence, like a great swine; Pride, strutting about his heart, and the other holding a dagger behind him; with a peacock's tail; Falsehood, with one hand on Unbelief, trampling on the Cross; Anger, &c.; the Pawns are Doubts; and, alas for devoted man! the only pieces which he has taken are Anger, like a turkey-cock, and one Doubt; while Satan has secured several cherub forms, which are the Pawns of Man, There is no little and are symbolical of Prayer. beauty in the thought of introducing prayers under and effectual, they may recover the vantage-ground the emblem of pawns; inasmuch, as, if persevering

which had been lost.

Humility, Affection, and Innocence, are also taken; but Religion, Truth, and Hope are still left. All the pieces are well set forth; and it is evident that Satan's are coming down in full force against those of his antagonist.

This design requires a long study, and affords much matter for reflection; every part will bear the most minute scrutiny; and it is scarcely possible for any one to quit it, without a deep sense of the moral which is conveyed by the allegory.

We cannot conclude this paper, without alluding to a fine passage in The Pilgrim's Progress, and expressing a wish, that the issue of the contest, so spiritedly depicted by Retzsch, might prove as happy to the party in jeopardy, and as favourable to the interests of religion, as that of Christian's fight with Apollyon.

This sore combat lasted for above half a day, even till that Christian, by reason of his wounds, must needs grow Christian was almost quite spent. For you must know, weaker and weaker. Then Apollyon, espying his opportunity, began to gather up close to Christian, and, wrestling with him, gave him a dreadful fall; and with that Christian's sword flew out of his hand, Then said Apollyon, I am sure of thee now! And with that he had almost pressed him to death, so that Christian began to despair of his life. But as God would have it, while Apollyon was fetching his last blow, thereby to make a full end of this good man, Christian nimbly reached out his hand for his sword, saying, Rejoice not against me, O mine enemy: when I fall I shall arise (Mic. vii. 8); and with that gave him a deadly thrust, which made him give back, as one that had received his mortal wound. Christian perthese things we are more than conquerors, through Him ceiving that, made at him again, saying,-Nay, in all that loved us (Rom. viii. 37); and with that Apollyon spread forth his dragon's wings, and sped him away, that Christian saw him no more.

The reference to Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress reminds us, in the first place, that it has never been adequately illustrated, and, in the next, that Retzsch's pencil and graver might, in all probability, be well and profitably employed in embellishing the First Part of that extraordinary work. Would not his master-hand find ample scope in delineating such scenes as the following?

1. Christian leaves the City of Destruction, and meets Evangelist.

2. Christian comes to the Cross, and is eased of his burden.

3. Christian ascends the Hill Difficulty.
4. Mistrust and Timorous leave Christian.
5. Christian fights Apollyon,

6. The Valley of the Shadow of Death.
7. Vanity Fair.

8. The Trial of Christian and Faithful.

9. Christian and Hopeful escape from Doubting Castle.

DIGESTION.

DIGESTION is the commencement of assimilation, or of that process by which, in animals, their food is by successive mutations converted into a liquid, that is to circulate as a living and vitalizing agent through their frame.

In human beings, assimilation comprises the following steps. The solid food is bruised in the mouth, and mixed with the saliva; it is then swallowed, and conveyed along the oesophagus into the stomach, where it is altered into an uniform pulpy mass, termed chyme; from the stomach it passes into the small intestines, where it is mixed with the bile and other fluids, which cause the chyle or recrementitious part to separate from it: the chyle is absorbed by the lacteals, and transmitted by them to the veins; mingling with the veins, the chyle is then passed through the vessels of the lungs, and aërated. The process of assimilation is then complete, and the blood so formed from the food is fit to sustain life. Of these changes, there is one which exclusively merits attention. This is the alteration which the food undergoes in the stomach:-its conversion into chyme. Mr. Abernethy emphatically called this Digestion; that is to say, he restricted the term digestion to this function. What precedes this change is mechanical, and a mechanical substitute may be found for it. The steps in assimilation which follow this change, if it has been perfectly executed, and the meal converted into proper chyme, are unfelt by us, executed independently of volition, and certain, if the system is in health, to be accomplished properly.

The stomach is the seat of hunger; we take food to allay its cravings, which are found to be equally appeased, whether the food is swallowed in the ordinary manner, or directly introduced into the organ. Consistently with these curious facts, it is well known that the natural disposition of a very hungry person is to chew hastily and imperfectly, and to bolt his food. He is not satisfied till the food reaches his stomach. Food, however, when insufficiently masticated, and swallowed in large and hard masses, is liable to injure the oesophagus in going down, and when it reaches the stomach, is difficult of digestion. One purpose of the senses of taste and flavour which we enjoy, is to induce us to continue comminuting the food in the mouth, and bruising it as long as its taste and flavour last; while we are gratifying these senses, the food acquires the requisite consistence for easy swallowing and easy digestion. The time gained by this process prevents the stomach being too rapidly filled, and allows the appetite to be satiated before the stomach is overloaded.

The substances introduced into the stomach are in reference to their consistence either innutritious liquids, or liquids with food mixed, or solids. The first are quickly absorbed and carried out of the stomach; the second undergo a separation of the liquid; after which the solider part, like ordinary solid food, is digested.

The process of digestion is strictly chemical. It is the result of the action of a solvent fluid upon the aliment, and takes place almost equally well without as within the body, if the proper temperature is maintained.

The solvent fluid is poured out by the lining membrane of the stomach, as the perspiration pours off the surface of the body. It is called the gastric juice. It consists of water holding in solution free muriatic and acetic acids, phosphates and muriates with bases of potassa and soda, magnesia and lime, and an animal matter soluble in cold water, but in

soluble in hot. It is clear and transparent, inodourous, a little saltish, and very perceptibly acid. It does not exist constantly, or accumulate in the stomach: but it is only secreted when wanted, or when the stomach is excited by the introduction of new matter into it.

The solvent power of the gastric juice out of the body was ascertained by Spallanzani, and Mr. Hunter discovered the remarkable phenomenon, that it would even digest, after death, the stomach which formed it. Dr. Beaumont, by many experiments, has confirmed the conclusions of Spallanzani. In some of the most valuable which he narrates, the same kind of meal was observed simultaneously undergoing digestion in the stomach, and in a phial of gastric juice obtained at the same time from the same stomach, and placed in a saucepan of water kept at the temperature of 100°.

"The effect of the gastric juice on the piece of meat introduced into the stomach, was exactly similar to that in the phial, only more rapid after the first half-hour, and sooner completed. Digestion commenced on, and was confined to the surface in both situations. Agitation accelerated the solution in the phial, by removing the coat that was digested on the surface, enveloping the remainder of the meat in the gastric juice, and giving the fluid access to the undigested portion."

The dissolved food, or the chyme, has the appearance of a thick homogeneous liquid, the colour of which partakes slightly of the colour of the food eaten. It is always of a lightish or grayish colour, varying in its shade and appearance from that of cream, to a grayish or dark-coloured gruel. Chyme from butter, fat meats, oil, resembles rich cream. All chyme is acid.

If

The perfectness of digestion (the food being digestible, and the stomach in health,) is dependent on the quantity of the gastric juice: if the quantity of the latter is proportionate to the meal which has been taken, the whole is changed into chyme. the quantity of gastric juice is insufficient, a residue of undigested food remains in the stomach, and becomes a source of irritation and derangement of function. It is not necessary that the stomach should be emptied of one meal before another is introduced into it. The presence of a second meal, crude and fresh, does not necessarily disturb the digestion of the first. If the stomach is in full vigour, and can furnish the absolute quantity of gastric juice required for both, both meals will undergo together harmonious digestion.

[Abridged from MAYO's Philosophy of Living.]

Is it not strange, that some should be so delicate as not to bear a disagreeable picture in the house, and yet force every face they see about them to wear a gloom of uneasiness and discontent?--Persian Letters.

DEATH.-If thou expect death as a friend, prepare to entertain it; if thou expect death as an enemy, prepare to overcome it: death has no advantage but when it comes a stranger.QUARLES.

A BUTTERFLY.

CHILD of the sun! pursue thy rapturous flight,
Mingling with her thou lovest in fields of light;
And, where the flowers of paradise unfold,
Quaff fragrant nectar from their cups of gold,
There shall thy wings, rich as an evening sky,
Expand and shut in silent ecstasy.

Yet wert thou once a worm, a thing that crept
On the bare earth, then wrought a tomb, and slept:
And such is man; soon from his cell of clay,
It burst a seraph in the blaze of day.-ROGERS.