CHINA, PROPER, the principal part of the large empire of that name, is situated on the south-eastern side of Asia, extending from the twentieth to the forty-first degree of north latitude; and from the 101st to the 122nd degree of east longitude, being on the medium about 1450 miles long from north to south, and nearly 1300 broad from west to east. It is bounded on the north by Mongolia, and Mantchoo Tartary; on the east by the Whang Hai, or Yellow Sea, and the Tung Hai or Eastern Sea, both connected with the Pacific Ocean; on the south by the China Sea, and Tongking; and on the west by the Birman Empire, and Thibet. China has been reckoned to contain an area of 1,300,000 square miles.

Its population has been a matter of much conjecture, and various accounts have been given on the subject, both by the Jesuits and more modern writers. Sir George Staunton, in his Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy, has stated it, on the authority of a mandarin of high rank, at 333,000,000 on the southern side of the Great Wall; but this account is given too much in round numbers, and in some instances with too much similarity in the population of the respective provinces, to be entirely trusted as correct. Mr. Ellis, a more modern traveller, who attended the embassy of Lord Amherst, and had superior opportunities of observation, is disposed to rate the population much lower. He observes very justly that it cannot exceed a due proportion to the land under cultivation, and that much land capable of tillage is neglected. He has been informed, he says, that the most accurate accounts (referring most probably to those of Dr. Morrison, who has resided many years at Canton), state its amount considerably below 200,000,000. It appears that a statistical account was taken by order of the late emperor Kia-king, which makes the total population, including the Tartar-banners, to be about 145,000,000. There is reason, however, to think that this census is drawn up in a very in. perfect manner. We find that in 1743 that taken by order of Kien-lung, gives it at 142,000,000; that in 1760, at 196,837,977; and again in 1761 at 198,214,553, making an annual increase of nearly a million and a half. Perhaps Dr. Morrison's statement may be assumed as the most probable one, when he fixes the population at about 150,000,000, allowing 120 persons to each square mile, a greater proportion still than prevails in many other parts of the world. But of this we shall say more when we come to speak of the provinces.

Whether this population is aboriginal, or derived from other countries, is very uncertain. In features the Chinese greatly resemble the Mongols, Mandshurs, and other Tartar tribes, which probably arises from the intermixture of the latter with the original inhabitants. Perhaps no people have undergone so many revolutions as the Chinese ;-they have been conquered, and have delivered themselves, and the country has

undergone many changes in regard to its divisions; but they have still preserved their identity. From the affinity between the customs and manners of the Chinese and northern Scythians, as Herodotus describes them, as well as their antipathy to change, it is highly probable that China was first peopled by those wandering tribes.

The present name of this country appears to owe its origin to the dynasty of Tsin, whose founder, about 300 years before Christ, after subduing the revolted provinces and annexing them to the empire, gave it the appellation of his own family. The most ancient name, and which is indeed still used, is Tien-sha, Under-heaven; implying that it is inferior only to heaven. The natives call it Tchungquo, or Chung-kwo, the middle kingdom, arising, say some, from the notion that the earth is flat, and that China is situated in the middle; others affirm, that when the emperor Tchingwang established his court at Lo-yand, and gave it this name, which was afterwards used for the whole country.

From the great extent of latitude occupied by China, the climate must necessarily be very various. In the southern parts the tropical heat is experienced; but near the coast this is much tempered by the monsoons and sea breeze, while in the north the cold for two or three months is extremely severe. The snow is constantly on the ground, and the thermometer is often below 20° at night, and beneath the freezing point all the day. All the intermediate degrees of temperature prevail in the middle parts of the country. The air of the northern seas is excessively moist, often welling like rain. In the most southerly regions the heat, especially at mid-day, exceeds that of Bengal; at that time all business is abandoned, and perfect silence reigns. Hurricanes are often experienced at the equinoxes; but at other times the sky is clear, the air moist, and the vegetation beautifully exuberant. The soil differs as much as the climate, consisting of every variety, from the remains of primitive rock to the matter of decayed vegetables. In the low districts it is alluvial, and quite free from stones; in other parts it is gravelly or rocky, and clay of extremely fine quality is found in some provinces.

The general face of this country is flat, occasionally varied with upland scenery; being in few places mountainous, except towards Tartary and in some parts of the south. On this subject Mr. Ellis says, 'A range of mountains was visible at sun-rise in the south-east, and the eyes of all were turned to them with the same degree of interest, as to high land after a sea voyage; indeed, what with uniformity of objects, and of level, the country since we left Tong-chow (about 550 miles) was as little interesting as the expanse of blue water.' A range of mountains in latitude about 32° runs from the 115th degree of longitude to the western boundaries of the empire, where it meets another, which extends southward to the Birman territory and Tongking; the most level parts lie on the north and east. The most ele

vated ridges are those on the side of Tartary, which gradually rise till their summits are lost in the table land of central Asia.

China is watered by numerous rivers, some of them large, and extending beyond its confines. The table land before mentioned, and the vast Himalayan chain of mountains that rise out of it, cause the accumulation of a multitude of streams, that, descending from the eastern sides of these heights, swell into noble rivers, receiving an accession of innumerable small branches in their course through China, and finally empty themselves into the China and Yellow Seas. Of these the most considerable are the Hoang-ho, and the Kiang-keou; almost all the minor streams falling into them. The Kiang-keou or Yangtse-kiang, meaning the Son of the Sea, has been the admiration of all travellers, for its extensive course and amazing width. It rises in the unexplored parts of northern Thibet, first running southeast, and then south, till it passes the frontiers of China Proper, in about 28° north latitude, when it takes a direction due east for about seventy miles; then flowing due south to the borders of the province of Yunnan, it winds eastward, and then directly to the north for nearly 150 miles, when it turns short to the E. N. E. which direction it retains throughout the remainder of its course, watering all the central provinces, till it falls into the sea by many mouths, nearly 140 miles below Nankin. It flows through a beautiful country, thronged with people, the scenery of which is varied by woody mountains, frequently crowned with temples, and presenting a most picturesque aspect. The embassy under Lord Amherst, on its return from China, pursued the course of this river for nearly 300 miles, and the breadth of the whole course was at least two miles on the average. Numerous large and fertile islands are situated on it, and the climate of the districts through which it passes is delightful. Its entire course exceeds 2200 miles, and it receives many tributary streams, equalling, if not surpassing, the Thames in magnitude and importance.

The Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, also rises in the Tartarian mountains, not far from the source of the Yangtse. After approaching very near to each other, they separate to the distance of more than 1000 miles. The former making many windings to the north-east, near the boundaries of China and Tartary, sweeps far into the latter country, forming the northern limit of the province of Ortous, then running due south, it passes through the great wall below the 40th degree of latitude and the 110th of longitude. It continues to flow in this direction for more than 300 miles, when it turns towards the Yellow Sea, into which it disembogues itself, after a course of more than 2000 miles. Many minor streams, some of them of considerable magnitude, fall into this river, which is so swelled at times by them, that in many parts banks are raised to prevent its overflowing the surrounding country. Besides these there are several other independent rivers, as the Pei-ho, which passes by Pekin, and flows into the gulf of Pee-scheeJee; the Ta-schin-ho, which falls into the same

gulf on the south side, and the Kang-kiang, which enters the sea near Canton, furnishing a ready access from that city to the interior.

It will be observed, that most of the above rivers cross the country from west to east; a grand communication was therefore necessary from north to south, and this has been effected by canals, with which this country is abundantly furnished. The grand canal, extending from Pekin to the Yangtse-kiang was commenced, it is said, in the tenth century, and 30,000 men, it is asserted, were employed forty-three years in its construction. It is generally led along the beds of rivers, sometimes conducting them to their junction with some other stream, and following a very winding course. There are no locks, and when flood-gates are required to check the current at a descent, they are formed simply of thick planks, let down into grooves cut in projections of stone, which also serve as abutments for slight wooden bridges, which are easily removed when vessels pass. Its whole length is about 500 miles; but though a considerable work, Mr. Abel thinks it has been overrated as a specimen of art and labor; it is, however, of great importance to the empire, forming the line of communication between its northern and southern provinces, and serving as a sluice to drain the lakes and marshes, and carry off the overflowings of the great Yellow River. After passing this river, it is continued to the Yangtse-kiang, which, by means of its tributary streams, carries the navigation to the foot of the mountains that form the northern boundary of the province of Canton, across which ridge goods are conveyed by one day's land carriage, till the navigation is again opened and continued to the city of Canton. A number of smaller canals, joining most of the principal rivers, intersect the country in various directions; but as they are mostly cut through level districts, and an alluvial soil, there are none of those difficulties in the construction which are experienced in many parts of this country.

Numerous and extensive lakes, are found in different parts of China; but most of them connected with the Yangtse or its tributary branches. The best known of them is Poyang, situated near the southern winding of the Great River, about the thirtieth degree of latitude. It is embosomed in mountainous and highly picturesque scenery, and so covered with islands that little of the water can be seen at one time. Mr. Ellis states that the Embassy sailed about sixty miles on this lake, but it is not wide in propor tion to its length, and it appears to form two branches. Violent storms sometimes render the navigation dangerous. The Tung-sing lake, in the same latitude, but about 250 miles more westward, is said to be much larger, not less than 300 miles in its greatest extent. North of Nankin, also, there are two considerable lakes near the part of the country where the two great rivers approach each other. The name of the province in which the great lake is situated, Hou-quang, implies the country of lakes; and it contains a great number, but generally small.

The coast of this empire is very extensive, being perhaps, not less than 1400 miles from the

north of the Wanghai to the gulf of Tonquin. It contains many indentations, and probably a number of convenient harbours, though most of them are unknown to Europeans. The most considerable is at the island of Emouy or Amoy, on the coast of Fokien, capable of containing 1000 vessels. Its principal bays, or gulfs, are those of Petche-lee on the north, and that of Ta or Canton on the south. The former is very extensive, and lies on the south side of the Whang Hai; on the north of this gulf, the Pei-ho discharges its waters over a bar, on which the depth at low water is only three or four feet, and the rise of the tide is but five or six feet. The latter is situated to the south of Canton, containing a cluster of numerous islands, and receiving the waters of the great river Hoan-kiang or Ta, which rises in the province of Yun-nan, and runs a course of 800 miles. Here the Ladrone islands,

about ten in number, and those of Lema, form a chain almost in a semi-circle before the bay; on the largest of the Ladrones is a lofty summit, with a dome that is seen at thirty miles distance. Most of these islands are rocky and barren; but they afford water, and Chinese fishermen generally take up their residence in them. The large islands of Hainan on the south of Quantang, and Tai-ouan, or Formosa, west of Fokien, are also included in China Proper. See articles HAINAN and FORMOSA.

China is most commonly divided into fifteen provinces, some of which being double, they are often reckoned as eighteen. Of these, four are situated in the north, seven in the middle, and four in the south. The following list is taken from the survey made by order of the late emperor Kien-lung, and furnished to Sir George Staunton by a mandarin of high rank:

65,104

58,949

PEKIN.

55,268

9,000,000

Nankin.

Hang-tcheou-fou.

Kiang-si

Nang-tcheou-fou

Fokien

Tan-tcheou-fou.

Though this may appear an enormous population, the proportion does not exceed 256 persons to the square mile, which would show China to be only peopled in proportion to England as three to two. When the nature of the climate, the variety and abundance of the productions, the proportionately small quantity of food consumed by the Chinese, and the few animals that they keep for pleasure, are taken into consideration, it has been thought not incredible that it should support a population equal to the above. The inhabitants are very unequally spread over the country; in some parts they are crowded to excess, while others wear the appearance of a desert.

The principal cities of the empire are Pekin, Nankin, and Canton. Pekin, the metropolis, and the residence of the emperor, is situated in the northern part of the province of Pe-che-lee, within view of the lofty blue mountains of Tartary, in lat. 39° 50′ N., and E. long. 116° 30'. It is surrounded with high walls flanked with many bastions and towers, the outer parts of which are built with bluish sun-baked bricks on a foundation of granite; the middle is filled with earth. These walls are thirty feet high, and twenty-five feet thick at the bottom, sloping towards the top; the towers are about seventy yards, or the dis

tance of a bow shot, from each other. The city consists of two parts, the Lan-ching, or old city, inhabited chiefly by Chinese; and the Sin-ching, or new city, where the Tartars chiefly reside. It is about eighteen miles in circumference, without including the suburbs. According to lord Macartney's information, Pekin contains about three millions of inhabitants, but this population is certainly not at all proportioned to its size, especially as the houses are low, most of them not above one story from the ground; but the Chinese crowd into a small compass, two or three generations frequently occupying a hut, that in England would scarcely be thought sufficient for the poorest family.

The city has two great streets, running through its whole extent, crossing one another, and dividing it into quarters; these are said to be 120 feet broad, and bordered with shops, but the houses are low and make a mean appearance. The rest of the streets are very narrow, most of them being mere lanes. The shops are painted and gilt in great profusion, and the goods are not only displayed within, but piled up in the streets before them; and every shop-keeper has a painted board before his door, inscribed with three age characters, which he has chosen for his sign, and often with a list of the articles he sells under

On account of the prevailing restrictions on foreign intercourse, it is impossible to give any correct account of other cities and towns in China. They are very numerous, there being, it is said, not fewer than 4400 walled towns, many of them declared to be large, and rivalling Pekin itself, but in these assertions no confidence can be placed. These towns are divided by the Chinese into two classes, distinguished by names indicative of the rank they hold, and as being of the first, second, and third order. The frontiers of this extensive empire, forming a line of not less than 10,000 miles, are guarded with such scrupulous attention, that no Russian, Turcoman, Affghan, Hindoo, Birman, or Tonquinese, on the land side, nor a single European or American, of the great numbers that trade annually at Canton, has ever been able to pass the barriers, without being discovered; so that for this reason our ideas of the topography of the interior, are very indistinct. In this respect the moderns have added little to the information already given by the Catholic missionaries, who were allowed to reside in the country.

The immense population of China renders agriculture of very great importance, and much has been said of the extreme state of cultivation which the country exhibits. Sir George Staunton says, the hills and mountains that afford any slight inclination are cut into terraces one above another, supported by mounds of stone, and thus the whole surface is frequently cultivated to the summit. These stages produce abundance of pulse, grain, yams, sweet potatoes, onions, carrots, turnips, and various other plants. On the tops of the mountains are reservoirs of water, from which by different channels it is conveyed to the terraces on the side. In the more rugged and barren parts the camellia sesanque, and different firs, especially the larch, are planted. It is a point of great importance to collect and preserve manure; and all decayed substances, both of animals and vegetables, are used for this purpose. Mr. Abel, however, observed many hills wholly uncultivated, and large plots of ground the cultivation of which was quite neglected. These, and extensive marshes, in which no trace of husbandry could be seen, at least show that the Chinese are not very well skilled in the improvement of land. They have no fallows. Their husbandry is neat and their implements simple; the plough is without a coulter and has but one handle; the harrow is much finer than what is used in England, and the soil is therefore more pulverised. The southern provinces produce great quantities of rice, and grain of all kinds is raised in the north. The castor-oil plant is much cultivated, and used as a common vegetable in some parts.

The choicest vegetables are the Petsai and the tea-plant. The former is a national plant, and is consumed in such immense quantities, especially in Pekin, that some authors say, that during the months of October and November the gates of the city are from morning to night thronged with carts laden with it. It is to the Chinese what the potatoe is to the Irish; it is prized by all ranks, and they spare no pains in its cultivation.

In

its raw state it is something like a lettuce, and

when boiled has the taste of asparagus; they preserve it for the winter in salt and vinegar, or by planting it in wet sand, or burying it deep in the earth, after it has been previously dried in the

sun.

Tea is a great article of cultivation; it is principally raised between the twenty-seventh and thirty-first degrees of latitude, and on the sides of very elevated mountains. The soil that suits it is dry and gravelly, frequently of decomposed rocks, with little vegetable mould. The province of Kiangnan produces the green tea, and that of Fokien the black. The plants are different; the leaves of the green tea are larger, thinner, and lighter than those of the black, though grown in the same soil and situation. When the seeds are sown in a good soil, all that is necessary is to keep the ground free from weeds. The trees do not produce leaves fit for use, till they are three years old. Early in the spring, as soon as young leaves appear, they are picked, and this is very choice, and is called the imperial tea; in May they pluck them again, some of them full grown, and others young, and this mixture constitutes the Bohea; in the summer they again gather them when all the leaves are full grown. Every six or eight years the ground requires to be replanted.

China produces a variety of trees and fruits. Oaks of several species, some of 100 feet high, and twenty-four round, are said to be common; they are used for building, dyeing, and other purposes, and the acorns as food for the peasantry, either raw or made into cakes. The tallow tree is one of the largest and most beautiful plants in the country, and found from the south of Nankin even to Canton. It is formed like the oak in the height of its stem, and its spreading branches, with foliage green and bright, like the laurel, and small yellow flowers. Clusters of seeds succeed them in the winter, which, when ripe, burst and show seeds of a delicately white color. The oil plant is also a striking peculiarity; it is generally about six or eight feet in height, and bearing an abundance of white blossoms, which often look at a distance like a waste of snow, but on a nearer approach have the appearance of a vast garden.

The mineral productions of China, as a flat alluvial country, will not be expected to be abundant. Some writers have mentioned quicksilver, iron, tin, copper, gold, and silver, as found in the mountains; as well as a peculiar species of white copper. Formerly the gold and silver mines were not allowed to be opened, lest the people should thereby be induced to neglect the natural riches of the soil; and in the fifteenth century the emperor caused a mine of precious stones to be shut, which had been opened by a private person. Of late, however, the Chinese are less scrupulous, and a trade in gold is carried on. Several kinds of marble abound. Tutenague is likewise a mineral product of China. It is principally obtained in the province Houquang, and quite distinct from the white copper' alluded to. Coal is met with in many of the northern provinces, and is the common fuel at Pekin and several other places. The Chinese musical stone, is a species of sonorous black