29. For is from the Saxon for or fore, and generally denotes cause or instead of.

30. From is from the Saxon fram, denoting beginning. 31. In is from the Latin in.

32. Into is composed of in and to. 33. Of is from the Saxon of.

34. Off is from the Dutch af. 35. On is from the German an.

36. Out of is composed of out and of. 37. Over is from the Saxon ober.

38. Through is from the Saxon thurh.

39. Throughout is composed of through and out. 40. Till is from the Saxon til, denoting the end.

41. To is from the Saxon to.

42. Towards is composed of to and ward, signifying to look. 43. Under is from the Saxon under, meaning on the under side.

44. Underneath is composed of under and neath.

45. Until is composed of un and til.

46. Unto is composed of un and to.

47. Up is from the Saxon up.

48. Upon is composed of up and on. 49. With is from the Saxon with.

50. Within is composed of with and in. 51. Without is composed of with and out.

REMARK. There are some words occasionally used as prepositions, not included in the above list.

DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS.

199. The most of the conjunctions are derived from the Saxon. For information upon this subject, the author is principally indebted to Horne Tooke and Dr. Webster. The following remarks upon the derivation of conjunctions, are believed to be usually

correct:

1. Although is derived from the Saxon eal, denoting all, and though the imperative of thah or thrah, denoting give, grant, or allow. The meaning is, Grant or allow all the nature of the case requires.

2. An, used in some ancient authors, denotes if or whether;

and is probably derived from the imperative gif, which is from gifan, to give or grant.

3. And is derived from and or anad, the imperative of ananad, and means to add.

4. As is probably contracted from the German als, and is used as an adverbial conjunction when it denotes comparison, proportion, or time, but as a conjunction when it denotes simply a connection of thought; as, "As he has no means of support, I will regard him as an object of beneficence."

5. Because is derived from be and cause, equivalent to by and cause, and denotes cause or reason.

6. Both is derived from butea, butwa, or butwe, and denotes two, considered as distinct from others. When used as a connective, it is generally used before a couplet of nouns, adjectives or verbs, for the purpose of intensity; as, “I have both counseled and entreated him to reform."

7. But may be derived from two different words, which denote different meanings; as,

(1). From butau, denoting without, excepting; hence it sometimes has the nature of a preposition.

(2). From bate, denoting addition, reparation. It has, however, acquired a meaning somewhat modified from the original, and is used generally before sentences or clauses, to denote that an opposite sentiment is expressed by it.

8. Either is derived from oegther, and when it is a conjunction it serves to disjoin. When it is used before a couplet united by or it makes the distinction more obvious.

9. Except is contracted from excepted, and generally denotes unless when used as a conjunction.

10. For is derived from for, and denotes cause or reason. 11. If is derived from gif, the imperative of gifan, and denotes grant or allow.

12. Lest is derived from lested the perfect participle of lesan, which signifies to dismiss.

13. Neither is derived from ne and either, and denotes not either.

14. Nor is derived from ne and or, and has a negative sense. 15. Notwithstanding is formed by the English participle and not, and denotes not opposing, but it is usually placed before a sentence or clause that expresses an opposite or different sentiment.

16. Or is derived from other, and marks an alternative.

17. Since is derived from since, and denotes seeing, or seeing that.

18. Than is from thanne, and is used to introduce the last part of a comparison.

19. That is from thart, the perfect participle of thran, to take.

20. Though is from thofig, the imperative of thofigan, to allow.

21. Unless is from unles, the imperative of anleson, and means except.

22. Yet is from get, the imperative of geton, and means to get, but usually placed before a clause that denotes opposition.

DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS.

REMARK. The derivation of interjections in many cases is attended with so much doubt and obscurity, and a labored exhibition of their derivation is of so little importance, that the author passes the subject, simply referring the student to the section on Interjections. See §§ 189, 190.

PART III.

SYNTAX.

$200. Syntax teaches the rules for constructing propositions or sentences.

The construction of sentences depends on agreement, relation, position, and government.

The relation of words is their dependence or connection according to the sense.

"The position of a word is its place in the sen

tence."

FIRST COURSE.

What does syntax teach? Upon what does the construction of a sentence depend? What is meant by "the relation of words ?" What is meant by the position of a word?

The agreement of words is their correspondence, in person, number, gender, case, or mode.

Government in grammar, is the power which one part of speech has over another to cause it to be of some particular person, gender, case, or mode.

PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS.

201. A proposition or sentence consists of a subject and predicate.

The subject of a proposition is that with respect to which something is commanded, supposed, interrogated, or affirmed; as, "Go thou," "If he can go;" "He goes." Here thou and he are the subjects.

The predicate denotes that which is demanded, supposed, interrogated or affirmed with respect to the subject; as, "Know thou;" "if he know ;" "he knows," "does he know ?" Here the word know is the predicate.

SUBJECT.

202. "The subject is either grammatical or logical."

REM. 1. The term grammatical, when applied to the subject and predicate of a proposition, refers only to their construction according to the rules of grammar.

REM. 2. The term logical, when applied to the subject and predicate of a proposition, refers simply to the entire thought or idea expressed by the principal and qualifying terms of the proposition.

203. The grammatical subject is a noun or something that supplies its place; as, "The tree falls ;" "The man is happy;" "Who lives virtuously?" In

FIRST COURSE.

What is understood by agreement of words? What is meant by the term government in grammar? What is a proposition? Define the subject of a proposition. Predicate. How is the subject divided? What is a grammatical subject?

SECOND COURSE.

To what does the term grammatical refer? To what does the term logical refer?

the first proposition tree is the grammatical subject; in the last two, man and who are the grammatical subjects.

204. The logical subject is the grammatical subject with its various modifying terms; as, "A wise son maketh a glad father." In this example son is the grammatical subject, and a wise son the logical subject. Abstract the noun from the qualifying terin and the proposition, "A son maketh a glad father," would by no means be universally true.

REM. 1. When the logical subject has no modifying terms, it is the same as the grammatical.

REM. 2. A verb in the infinitive mode, with its modifiers, is sometimes used as the grammatical and logical subject; as, "To deceive a friend is cruel." Here, to deceive is the grammatical subject, and to deceive a friend, i. e., the infinitive with its qualifying term friend, is the logical subject.

REM. 3. Also a sentence is sometimes the grammatical and logical subject; as, "That anything can exist without existing in space, is to my mind incomprehensible." Here the simple proposition, thing can exist, is the grammatical subject. The simple proposition, with its qualifying terms, "That any without existing in space," is the logical subject.

REM. 4. When the infinitive is the subject of a proposition, the simple infinitive is the grammatical subject, and the infinitive with its qualifying terms, the logical subject.

REM. 5. When a sentence is the subject of a proposition, the simple proposition is the grammatical subject, and the simple proposition with its qualifying terms, is the logical subject; as, "That the path of duty is safest, is doubtless true." Here the simple proposition, path is, is the grammatical subject; and the whole clause in italics is the logical subject.

What is a logical subject?

FIRST COURSE.

SECOND COURSE.

Is a verb in the infinitive mode sometimes used as a grammatical or logical subject? Is a whole sentence ever used thus? When the infinitive is the subject of a proposition, which is the grammatical, and which the logical part? When a sentence is the subject, which is the grammatical, and which the logical part?