DERIVATION OF ARTICLES.

§ 192. The articles are derived as follows:

1. The is from the Saxon the, which is from thran, to take. It has nearly the same meaning as this or that.

2. An is from the Saxon an or ane, denoting one.

DERIVATION OF NOUNS.

$193. Nouns are derived from verbs, nouns, adjectives and participles.

1. By annexing er or or, denoting office; as, print, printer; collect, collector.

2. By changing e final into or, denoting employment; as, distribute, distributor.

3. By changing the termination of the verb into ation, ition, sion, tion, ce, or se; as, denominate, denomination; oppose, opposition; commit, commission; inflict, infliction; pretend, pretence; expand, expanse.

4. By annexing age, ance, ment, or ure; as, dote, dotage; depart, departure; command, commandment; deliver, deliverance.

5. Nouns and verbs are sometimes spelled alike, and distinguished only by pronunciation; as, dèsert, desert; rècord, record. In other cases their spelling and pronunciation are alike, and they are distinguished only by the sense of the passage; as, measure, to measure; cry, to cry.

REMARK 1. Nouns are formed from nouns,

1. By annexing ery, ry, or y, denoting habit or situation of life; as, knave, knavery; cutler, cutlery; fool, foolery.

2. By annexing dom, head, rick, or ship, denoting office, character, or dominion; as, king, kingdom; block, blockhead; bishop, bishoprick; lady, ladyship.

3. By annexing ian, denoting profession; as, physic, physi

cian.

4. By annexing bin, erel, nel, kin, ulet, or ling, denoting diminution; as, cock, cockerel; bob, bobbin; tun, tunnel; river, rivulet.

5. By annexing ade or age; as, lemon, lemonade; cord, cordage.

6. By annexing ist, denoting those that are devoted to the subject denoted by the primitive.

7. By prefixing an adjective or another noun, and thus forming a compound noun; as holy, holy-rood; sea, sea-weed.

REM. 2. Nouns are formed from adjectives,

1. By changing t into ce or cy; as, brilliant, brilliance, brilliancy.

2. By annexing done, hood, ist, ity, ness, ship; as, wise, wisdom; false, falsehood; loyal, loyalist; manly, manliness ; hard, hardship.

3. By changing, in some cases, some of the letters, and annexing th; as, warm, warmth; high, height; long, length; true, truth.

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES.

§ 194. Adjectives are derived from verbs, participles, adjectives, or verbs.

REMARK 1. Adjectives are derived from verbs,

1. By annexing able, ible, ive, ory, or tory, and sometimes changing some of the letters; as, note, notable; solve, solvable; interrogate, interrogatory; console, consolatory.

2. By prefixing un, or a word which is not a part of the verb from which the participle is derived; as, learned, unlearned; faring, way-faring; creating, all-creating.

REM. 2. Adjectives are derived from adjectives,

1. By annexing ish, some, ly, or y ; as, red, reddish; glad, gladsome; true, truly; swarth, swarthy.

2. By prefixing dis, in, or un; as, similar, dissimilar; true, untrue; consistent, inconsistent.

REM. 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns,

1. By annexing able, ible, less, en, some, ish, ly, ful, al, eous, ious, ous, ic, ical, ine, ly, y, and sometimes omitting or changing some of the final letters; as, reason, reasonable; access, accessible; name, nameless; oak, oaken; toil, toilsome; knave, knavish; youth, youthful; notion, notional; right, righteous; glory, glorious; villain, villainous; democrat, democratical; adamant, adamantine; rock, rocky.

2. By annexing ed; as, saint, sainted.

:

3. Nouns frequently become adjectives without change of form; as, gold, gold leaf.

4. Adjectives derived from proper names terminate in various ways; as, Newton, Newtonian; Cicero, Ciceronian.

DERIVATION OF PRONOUNS.

§ 195. All the pronouns are derived from the Saxon. They are derived as follows.

§ 196. Verbs are derived either from nouns, adjec tives, or verbs.

I. Verbs are derived from nouns.

1. Verbs are formed from nouns by annexing the termination ize; as, method, methodize; system, systemize; moral, moralize. When the primitive ends with a vowel, the consonant t is prefixed to the termination; as, stigma, stimatize.

2. By annexing en; as, length, lengthen; height, heighten. 3. By annexing ate; as, origin, originate.

4. By changing a consonant; as, advice, advise.

5. By annexing e mute; as, breath, breathe; bath, bathe. 6. By annexing fy, and changing u into i, and dropping m; as, stratum, stratify.

II. Verbs are derived from adjectives,

1. By annexing ate; as, domestic, domesticate.

2. By annexing en or n; as, deep, deepen; wide, widen. 3. By annexing ize; as, civil, civilize.

4. By annexing fy, and dropping e mute; as, brute, brutify. 5. By prefixing to; as, warm, to warm; lame, to lame; cool, to cool; dry, to dry; forward, to forward.

III. Verbs are derived from verbs,

By prefixing a, be, dis, for, fore, mis, over, out, un, under, up, and with; as, rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle; own, disown; bid, forbid; see, foresee; take, mistake; look, overlook; run, outrun; fasten, unfasten; go, undergo; hold, uphold; draw, withdraw.

(For the derivation of participles, see Etymology, p. 90, § 153, Rem. 1.)

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

§ 197. Adverbs are derived from adjectives, and sometimes from participles and nouns, by annexing ly; as, grateful, gratefully; loving, lovingly; connected, connectedly. Ly is a contraction of like, anciently written lie; as, sweetlike, sweetlie, sweetly. Most of the adverbs of manner are thus formed.

REM. 1. Very is derived from the French vrai, or the Latin verus, denoting true.-Dr. Webster. Rather is the comparative of the ancient rath, soon.

REM. 2. Many adverbs are compounded of two or more English words; as, always, already, elsewhere, herein, otherwise, sometimes, to-day, thereby, wherewithal, etc.

DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS.

§ 198. The prepositions are supposed to be derived as follows::

1. About is from the Saxon abutan, and generally denotes around.

2. Above is from the Saxon, abufan, and denotes preëminence in point of place, rank, etc.

3. Across is from the English a, denoting at, and the noun cross, and denotes at cross.

4. After is the comparative of aft, and denotes behind in

the rears.

5. Against is from togeanes, and denotes opposition.
6. Along is from a and long, denoting at long.

7. Amid is from a and mid, and denotes middle.

8. Amidst is from a and midst, and denotes at midst.
9. Among is abreviated from amongst.

10. Amongst is from a and the Saxon particle mongst, denoting mixed

11. Around is from a and round, and denotes encircling. 12. At is from the Saxon aet, and denotes nearness or presence.

13. Athwart is from a and thwart, and denotes across. 14. Before is from be and fore, and denotes in front.

15. Behind is from the Saxon behindan, and denotes at the back of another.

16. Below is from be and low, and denotes under. 17. Beneath is from be and neath, and denotes below.

18. Beside is from be and side, and denotes moreover when used as a conjunction.

19. Besides is from be and sides, and denotes over and above. 20. Between is from the Saxon betweonan, and denotes intermediate.

21. Betwixt is from the Saxon betwyx, and denotes between. 22. Beyond is from the Saxon beyeond, and denotes gone by. 23. By is from the Saxon big or be.

24. Concerning is from the present participle of the verb

to concern

25. Down is from dun, and denotes descent.

26. During is from an old verb dure, and denotes continuing.

27. Except is from the verb to except, and denotes aside from.

28. Excepting is a present participle of the same verb, but has acquired a different meaning in some cases.