"One sheet of diagrams of constructive masonry, and one sheet of diagrams of a roof-truss of iron or steel;"

while, alas! the optional work of "complete drawings from actual measurement of a groined vault of any period between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1500" is omitted, a subject the thorough study of which, optional though it be, would be of the highest value in the education of an architect.

The subjects eliminated are all within the range of "advanced architectural studies," and should, in the ordinary course of his studies, be prepared by the student, without reference to the Examination at all, and if not so prepared his education is in so far defective or neglected. The elimination of those subjects from the programme is, therefore, to be greatly regretted as a retrograde step, which may be taken as a declaration that such studies are superfluous and unnecessary.

Although it is proposed by the report that in the Final Examination "the candidate's attention should be concentrated on those subjects which will claim his care in the practice of architecture," there is not any indication of the meaning to be attached to these words, and this apparently will not be disclosed until "the Revised Forms and Programmes may be had on application to the Secretary."

It is to be regretted that changes so closely affecting the principles of architectural education should have been in so bald a manner published to the members of the Institute, and the public at large, as settled and accomplished facts, determined on by the Council, and to come in force in June next, without one word of explanation of the reasons or necessity (should such exist) which may be supposed to justify the changes in a programme, the result of long consideration and discussion before the Progressive Examinations were established.

The Council may be within their rights in so proceeding, without taking the general body into their confidence; but it would certainly have been desirable that an expression of opinion on the proposed changes should have been elicited before they were announced as accomplished facts.

The instructive papers respecting the School of Architecture of Columbia University in New York, recently presented to the Library by Professor W. R. Ware, show a remarkable advance in the training of an architect, in striking contrast to the retrograde action approved by the Council, and when it is understood that in the United States there are certainly eight other universities-viz. Cornell, Illinois, Philadelphia, Cambridge, Boston, Providence, Syracuse, Bethlehem-in which similar perfect systems of architectural training are in operation, the regret at the course taken must be much intensified.

In the first years of the "Intermediate" there was a great desire expressed to cut down the

requirements and make it "easy." easy." These efforts were successfully resisted, with the happy result shown by the excellent work now produced for that examination, for which, had the then advocates of "simplification and prevention of overlapping" had their way, there would have been no inducement, and the present high standard would not have been attained; but the lesson of this experience has been disregarded, with the result now to be so much deprecated.

ARTHUR CATES.

With reference to the foregoing, the Board of Examiners have sent the following Memorandum :

The sole object which the Board of Examiners had in view, in revising the scheme of Examinations, was to remove any features which they had reason to believe, from representations made to them, deterred Students from presenting themselves. Although, as Mr. Cates says, "The programme was framed on the basis that the Intermediate should be taken not more than two years after the Preliminary, and the Final not later than three years after the Intermediate," it has been found, practically, that a large number of candidates do not come up for the Final Examination till they have passed the stage of pupilage and have become paid assistants, in which position it was extremely difficult for them to find time for the large number of testimonies of study required for the Final, and for the reading necessary to answer satisfactorily the History papers of this Examination. Furthermore, the Final Examination is the one by passing which specially exempted candidates who are chief assistants or architects in practice have been enabled, since 1894, to qualify as candidates for the Institute Associateship, and it is a positive fact that the History papers in this examination formed a stumbling-block which in several cases was never surmounted. The Board therefore thought it undesirable to divert the senior candidates from their practical work of which the Final Examination is mainly the test. The Board felt that the necessity for some alteration was forced upon them, but they were most reluctant to interfere with the existing scheme, and it was only after long and numerous discussions that they advised the Council to adopt the revisions which they have proposed.

On behalf of the Board of Examiners,
(Signed) ALFRED WATERHOUSE,
Chairman.

U

THE HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF

ARCHITECTURE.

Abstract of a course of lectures being delivered this
Session before the Glasgow School of Art.
By W. J. ANDERSON [4.].

I. (LECTURES I.-VIII.).

IN opening his course of lectures, Mr. Anderson attempted a consideration of the value of an historic aspect of architecture, pointing out what it might and might not teach. The lectures were only a small part of the traditional training of the school, a training which proceeded on the principle of putting a better tool into the hand of the younger man. If, after attending these lectures, students found that the casts of ornament and figure did not in their minds fall into their right place in their historic succession, and in the building for which they were designed, if they had no keener interest in the medieval church and castle, and in their sketching and measuring of them, no greater facility in graceful and scholarly design, the lectures were not fulfilling the purposes for which they were planned. Referring to C. O. Müller's classification of the stages (1) imitative or artistic, (2) antiquarian, and (3) scientific, through which our attitude to ancient art had passed, the lecturer said that another was in view, in which we should learn by fuller and broader knowledge to be ourselves; not to devote overmuch attention to one page of architectural history, as revivalists had done; but to receive the larger tradition in a fuller consciousness of it, which could only come through an intelligent and sympathetic apprehension of all past achievement in relation to its surroundings. And this, under present circumstances, was by no means so difficult or huge a task as was commonly supposed. The student who could in some degree apprehend the historic significance of a type of design was for that very reason the less likely to misapply it or feebly copy it. At the same time students were reminded that this was only one side of their training, and counselled in their office work and the design competitions to develop the faculties of initiative. The remainder of this first lecture consisted of an outline of the long history of Egyptian architecture, illustrated by about a hundred photographs, plans, and restorations. The treatment was general and introductory, for Egyptian architecture covered a period of time greater than that to be dealt with in the succeeding twenty-four lectures, and in its permanence suggests analogies with the predominance of the Romano-Greek style in Europe down to the present day.

The second lecture, delivered on November 8th, was entitled "The Mycenian Age in Greece," in which period are discovered the true origins of European architecture. Comparing the palaces of

Tiryns and Nineveh in their plan and construction, it was seen how the Achaian race, at least three hundred years before the great palace building era of Assyria, were in advance in their planning and their columnar and peristylar construction. From the discoveries of Schliemann and Dörpfeld it had been clearly demonstrated that to them and not to the Dorian conquerors was due the invention of the Doric entablature, and nearly every characteristic decoration. In the supersession of this primitive civilisation, the Dorians threw back for centuries every artistic development, leaving the expatriated Achaians to work out their destiny in a larger way in the New Ionia to which they were driven. The acropolis and domed tombs of Mycene, the sculpture of the period, and the primitive decorative forms which survive in later work, were all analysed and illustrated. Apart from its interest as the prototype of Hellenic architecture, the development is of value as an example of a logical style of wood construction of a highly architectural character, which was also copied in stone. The form of the Mycenian column, for example, is that of the legs of our furniture down to the present day, and was probably abandoned by the Greeks only when the wooden entablature was converted into a stone one, and a stronger form required. To the Mycenians also we owe the retreating faces of an architrave, composed originally of wood planks; the inclined sides of doorway openings, which remain throughout the Greek period and the Celtic civilisation of Europe; while the fluting of the columns, the patera, the rosette, the palmette, the spiral, are each of them forms upon which the later Hellene exercised his genius, leaving them ennobled and purified.

The third lecture dealt with the "Archaic" period of Greek art, which came about by the irruption of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus and Sicily, and the consequent migration of the Ionians to what was probably their original home. This is suggested in part by the type of citadel at Troy, or Hissarlik, in Asia Minor, which shows close affinity to the Mycenian examples. After a brief survey of the geography and history of Asia Minor in its relation to the arts, the lecturer proceeded to trace the growth of the archaic Greek style in that region, by whose traditions (those of Phrygia for example) the settlers were largely moulded. The temple form was believed to originate in the megaron of the dwelling, as at Troy, Tiryns, &c., Troy, Tiryns, &c., and before 550 B.C. its structural development was complete, the talents of succeeding architects being directed to its refinement by modifications in detail and sculpture. The growth of the Ionic order from the archaic examples of Ephesus and Athens to its perfection in the Erechtheum was traced in successive stages. Turning to the Doric side, an attempt was made to sketch the growth of the Greek city, such as the Dorian colonists might plant in Sicily and

South Italy, and the matter illustrated by views of Agrigentum and the numerous Doric temples of Sicily. The development of the Doric order was traced from its appearance at Mycene past the archaic reliefs at Selinunto and the capitals of the Olympian Heræon to the perfection of the Athenian examples; and an account of the peculiarities in construction was given. Speaking of the archaic Doric temples generally, the lecturer said that though grave, ponderous, and profoundly impressive, they were quite without that opulence of fine drawing and modelling which characterised every Ionian work. In place of that there had been developed a perfect structural frame, a logical application of stone to the purpose of a temple shrine, a work of architectural art assuredly, but of the second rank. But the Ionian has yet to blend with it his more artistic perception, to clothe its cella wall with his particular invention the processional frieze, and to throw into the masses and grouping, the optical refinements, the applied sculptures, the polychromatic decoration, that instinct of sweetness of line and grace of proportion which is his birthright.

The subject of the fourth lecture was announced as the "Culmination and Coalescence of Hellenic Art in Attica." After a recapitulation of the main points of the previous lectures, the economic causes of the culminating period in Athens were touched upon. The interesting history of the worship or cult of Athene on the Acropolis, as it has been developed by Dörpfeld, was gone into at some length, that the real significance of the several monuments might be made apparent. From the Varvakeion statue, the chryselephantine image of Athene was restored, and Pausanias's description of it quoted, while the pediment sculptures were also shown in restored form and as they so far exist. The attention of the students was directed to the thoughtful disposition of the sculptured Panathenaic procession in its relation to the actual event it symbolised and commemorated. A detailed description of the Parthenon was then entered upon, illustrated by numerous slides, and several restorations of the interior were advanced. The results of the researches of Mr. Penrose and others were summarised and the colour decoration explained. The lecturer said that the Parthenon was to be regarded as the Dorian-Greek model transmuted and glorified by the highest artistic instinct, which appears most of all among Ionians, among the lineal descendants of the men of Mycene. The native Ionic order seems at this time to have fallen out of favour, but was naturally employed to house the very ancient image of Athene Nike, and was revived in the memorial or heroon of Erechtheus. In its relation to the other shrines of the Acropolis, the little temple of Athene Nike was considered, and its situation, and the significance of its sculpture indicated. To the succeeding lecture

were relegated the Propylæa and the Erechtheum, other examples of skilful combination of Doric and Ionic elements from the same great centre, which was not more the mother of arts and eloquence than the child of wedded Ionian and Dorian art and philosophy.

Following up the subject of the former lecture, two of the most important of the public buildings of Athens, the Propylæa and the Erechtheum, were considered; both exhibiting the catholicity of taste characteristic of the Athenian artist and his adaptability under conditions prescribed, in spite of the conservatism and limitation of view which is supposed to distinguish him. In connection with the description of these works an attempt was made to realise the standpoint of the master confronted with a definite problem, setting altogether on one side questions of influence and environment, which, though none the less real, were doubtless beyond the view of the artist of the time. Applying this treatment to the Propylæa, the object of the building was considered; the nature of its site; the alignment which its designer decided on in its relation to the Acropolis wall and the great temple; and the original intention of the architect as it has been recovered by recent research. The various obstacles preventing the accomplishment of the scheme, in so far as they can be read in the building itself, were indicated; while the fitness of the architecture and the beauty of its details and painted decoration were shown by many illustrations. The Erechtheum was treated similarly, and explained in its relation to its purpose as a memorial of Erechtheus and his ancient megaron, the type of which it appeared to preserve in its main features; and in addition to views of its present state, restorations of interior and exterior, and of its relation to the other buildings of the Acropolis were shown by lantern slides. Extending the subject so as to embrace the culmination in Ionia, restorations of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassos were advanced, with photographs of sculptures in the British Museum.

The

The lecture on "Declining Greece and RomanoGreek Revival" was chiefly concerned with the development of the Corinthian order: firstly, with the several buildings, such as the Choregic monuments, Tower of the Winds, and the Temple of Jupiter Olympius; and, secondly, with the growth of the capital and the order generally. monuments were described in the light of recent researches by Dr. Jane Harrison, Mr. Penrose, and others; and many historical examples of the capital from the Temple of Apollo at Bassa to that at Jupiter Olympius shown on a large scale. Various accessories of the temple and other architecture were then described, such as the tile and marble roof, the mosaic and plaster floors, and the metal work and decorative sculpture. But it was held that such sculpture could not be

described merely as accessory to the architecture. Mythologic in origin and motive, it was besides less vitally connected with the architectural development than in almost any other historic style. The Acropolis of Athens must have been a very forest of independent images, while other cities measured their comparative dignity by their thousands of statues. Architecture rather was accessory to sculpture, for the great chryselephantine idol might be regarded as the real motive of the erection of the whole temple and peribolus. After a word on the Dionysian theatre, and the palestra and gymnasia of the Greeks, the buildings of the Roman occupation were summarised: the Mausoleum of Philopappus; the Arch of Hadrian, and the Odeion of Herodes Atticus.

In the seventh lecture the architectural history of Italy was entered upon. From the tombs of Cervetri and Corneto some of the characteristics of primitive Italian architecture were gathered, and its close affinity with the Mycenian type demonstrated. The tufa wall of Roma Quadrata at the Palatine and the Cloaca Maxima and other indications of Etruscan type at Rome, were described and illustrated. As an example of the transitional period, the Temple of Fortuna was instanced, with its combined construction of tufa and travertine, and its combination of Etruscan or primitive Italian materials and arrangement with almost purely Hellenic proportions and detail. In the Augustan age the natural fusion of Greek decorative principles and Italian arched construction appears in such works as the Basilica Julia and Theatre of Marcellus; while the conservatism pertaining to religious structures maintains the modified Etruscan arrangement of the Temple of Fortuna, save where, as in the Julius Cæsar's Temple of Venus Genetrix, the Greek model is fully restored. The fora of Julius and Augustus were illustrated in their restored form with details of the Temple of Mars Ultor; also the Forum Romanum, with the Temples of Concord, Vesta, Castor and Pollux. The plan of the Pompeian Forum was adduced as a typical example of the Græco-Roman arrangement, and compared with the Agora of Assos as an indication of the close approach to identity of the customs of the two races. And just as the Greek agora became the Roman forum, so the Greek palestra became the Roman therma, and the Greek stadion branched into the Roman amphitheatre and circus. An account of the Roman dwellings and shops, with illustrations from Pompeii, concluded the lecture.

The last lecture of the term, delivered on December 20th, dealt with the culminating period of Trajan and Hadrian. The motive of the architecture of the Flavian emperors appeared to be that of currying public favour, and this is strikingly evinced in the supersession of Nero's colossal Golden Palace by the building of a huge place of

public entertainment like the Colosseum. Brutal in purpose, and meretricious in decoration, there was yet a magnificence in its largeness of scale, and in the science displayed in its erection and arrangements, which, from an architectural point of view, made it well worthy of study. Sections were presented to show the variety of material employed and the engineering knowledge revealed in its construction, and it was indicated that probably the whole fabric outside and in was covered with coloured stucco and cement decoration, which would account partly for the rudeness and unfinished character of the travertine work. Along with this work, partly of the Flavian emperors, was considered the Palace of Domitian on the Palatine and the Forum of Nerva. Under Trajan, the Greek architect Apollodorus, and others, restored in his forum and basilica and other buildings the high character of the Augustan period, which was carried to a greater degree of splendour under Hadrian. The back to back cellæ of his temple of Amor and Roma, his villa at Tivoli, the Pantheon, and his mausoleum were described in their main features and illustrated by views and restorations. The recent discovery of the age of the Pantheon as that of his reign justified the classification of Hadrian's time as the culminating era of Roman art, and produced some of nature's own order out of the former chaos of Roman architectural history. The distinctive Roman material of this age is concrete, which made such conceptions as the Pantheon possible; and brick is only employed as a facing. Other materials were considered in their origin and employment, and various Roman constructural methods of centreing, building, and veneering were described. Before going on to the time of Septimius Severus, the lecturer connected the subject with Roman work in Britain, and particularly the Roman Wall in the North of England, to which the students had travelled in the autumn of the year.

REVIEWS. LXIV. (176)

A TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome: a Companion Book for Students and Travellers. By Rodolfo Lanciani, D.C.L., Oxford, LL.D., Professor of Ancient Topography in the University of Rome, dc. 80. Lond. 1897. Price 16s. [Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., Bedford Street, Covent Garden.]

Possibly Professor Lanciani would be even more highly appreciated than he now is in this country if he wrote fewer books. With a subject so circumscribed he cannot avoid repeating himself. On the other hand, there is no harm to us in the matter, because on questions of so much intricacy as the Ruins and Excavations of Rome most of

us require to read and re-read. We do so the more willingly when assured, as in this instance, that the easy fluency of the writer is not inconsistent with scholarly accuracy and unrivalled knowledge of detail.

It is not his purpose, he says in the preface, and again on page 322, to provide a manual of Roman topography. But, notwithstanding these warnings, travellers who take this volume with them to Rome will find in it quite as much topography as they can well desire. They will discover that topography as Professor Lanciani here understands it is precisely what they most want. To architects his accounts of the Pantheon, the various controversies that have gathered round it, and the latest results of excavation and research will be highly welcome as an authoritative statement. To the intelligent traveller it will be doubly so. But the Pantheon, not being a ruin, only comes within his scope because of the excavations of late years. He does not promise He does not promise and does not give critical remarks on the architecture. That is his principle throughout. He describes in detail the frescoes of the house of Germanicus on the Palatine, but has nothing to say of their style or their relation to Greek painting. Perhaps it is as well so, if we may judge from such passing occasions as when, on page 137, he praises highly a statue of Cybele. The photograph which he gives of the bust of that statue is sufficient to show that there is no reason for his regret that it was "allowed to migrate to foreign lands." It is a statue of colossal size, such as would be effective in some great hall, but otherwise of the ordinary Græco-Roman type. So, at least, it seemed to me previous to its migration. The specimens of architectural decoration from the Basilica Ulpia on pages 316-317, are good illustrations of the art in the time of Trojan, but to speak of their "marvellous beauty," page 318, is absurd. We quite agree with him, however, in his praise of the Head of a Greek Girl on p. 379.

But these matters are of no real consequence in a book the aim of which is to recall the growth and greatness of Rome as a city filled with historical associations. For such a task the first requisite is scholarly accuracy, such as we have been little accustomed to in English works on Rome. There Lanciani stands among the foremost. It is no charge against his accuracy if we point out that in this volume there are numerous small things which ought to have been seen to by some one. He knows very well that Theseos (page 142) is not a possible form of Theseus, and he cannot himself be blamed for the numerous misspellings of proper names from the English point of view. On page 114 the word "prototype" is used in an inverted sense. "Sentence of death on the Monuments" (page 249) is probably a translation from the Italian. The word "Monument "is frequently used in a foreign sense, as on page 378, where the Colosseum is called a "Monument." It is much

Cambridge described and illustrated, being a short History of the Town and University. By Thomas Dinham Atkinson, with an Introduction by John Willis Clark, M.A., F.S.A., Registrary of the University, late Fellow of Trinity College. 80. Lond. and Cantab. 1897. Price 21s. net. [Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Bedford Street, Covent Garden; Macmillan & Bowes, Cambridge.]

Mr. Atkinson, after some years of careful research, has produced a work on Cambridge which certainly merits high praise. He modestly speaks of Cooper's Annals and his Memorials of Cambridge, and Messrs. Willis and Clark's Architectural History of the University and Colleges of Cambridge, as the chief fountains from which he has drawn his inspiration; but he has gone much beyond these, especially in the part referring to the town. It is really the first book which places the information about the history of the town in a compact and readable form.

He draws a lucid picture of the early condition of the town; part surrounding the protecting

castle on one side of the river, and part around St. Benet's Church some half mile higher up on the opposite bank, all now enclosed in the much enlarged town.

The almost unique position as a reason for the growing up of an important town is well explained; he brings out clearly how the fens to the north were an impassable barrier, and the woodland to the south was almost the same, while the river was navigable up to the town but not above, where it was invariably forded, as shown by the names of the villages on it. Its bridge formed by far the most convenient route for the transit of goods between East Anglia and the West of England; and thus we find what might almost naturally be looked for, viz., the great Stourbridge fair, a fair of very early times, but which was flourishing as late as the last century, and is spoken of by Defoe (whom Mr. Atkinson quotes at some length) as