that the mercy-seat was inseparably connected in the Hebrew mind with propitiation. That Paul conceived of God as made propitious by Christ's death is evident from his words, "through faith in his blood." It is also evident from his adding, "To show his righteousness in passing over sins that are past." Dr. Clarke's paraphrase, "his forgiveness takes them away and leaves them in the past," is a perversion apparently due to the use of the English version; τῶν προγεγονότων ἁμαρτημάτων means, of course, sins which formerly happened. Paul says that God showed himself righteous in forgiving these sins by setting forth Christ as a bloodbesprinkled mercy-seat (if we accept this rendering), that is, representing to mankind a forgiveness procured through the Saviour's death. Dr. Clarke claims that Paul says in Romans v. 10, that "when we were enemies to God we were reconciled to Him" (that is won to his friendship) by the death of his Son. But the clause in the preceding verse to which this statement corresponds is, "while we were yet sinners Christ died for us," that is, as the apostle explains, died for us as a man might die for the sake of a friend, — take his place. One of the passages in which Paul has most plainly taught the vicariousness of Christ's death, Gal. iii. 13, "Christ has redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us," Dr. Clarke has scarcely noticed. It must also be said that it should not be affirmed that Paul has taught the ultimate salvation of all, on the strength of 1 Cor. xv. 28, "God shall be all in all," without at least mentioning those passages in which he has said that some will be finally lost.

Dr. Clarke says of Paul: "Notice the precision of his language. Each phrase has its own exact meaning, every word tells; he uses no vague generalities." He also, as we have said, owns the value of modern exegetical scholarship in its elucidation of Paul's writings. He therefore obliges us to subject his representation of those writings to exegetical tests. That it will not, in its distinctively Unitarian features, bear these tests may be safely asserted. Modern exegesis has certainly shown that the distinctively evangelical tenets are imbedded in Paul's writings. It has also shown that some of the Calvinistic tenets against which Unitarianism revolts are not contained in them.

Many passages in the book show a spiritual appreciation of Christ which is thoroughly Pauline. The words, "Paul regards the whole creation as tending towards Christ, and meant to be ultimately redeemed by the fullness of his love," remind us of those other golden words of the apostle, "No man can call Jesus Lord, but by the Holy Ghost."

Edward Y. Hincks.

THE PRINCIPLES OF WRITTEN DISCOURSE. BY THEODORE W. HUNT, Ph. D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Language in the College of New Jersey. pp. 362. N. Y. A. C. Armstrong & Son.

This book is designed for the use of students in the higher classes in colleges. The objects proposed by the author, as defined by himself, are as follows: to give a true definition of discourse; to establish guiding principles to reveal the basis of discourse in a true philosophy of the mind, to present the true relations of the science and the art of discourse, to connect the study of discourse with that of literature and language to reveal the close relations of discourse to a practical knowledge of the world and human life; to make emphatic, throughout, the moral element in discourse.

The treatment is in two parts. Part I. includes the topics: definition of discourse (1); parts of discourse; material and media of discourse; processes of discourse; laws of discourse. Part II., definition of discourse (2); qualities of discourse; forms of discourse.

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Although the title of the book is "The Principles of Written Discourse," the relations of composition to oral address are not neglected. The author says: In presenting the subject of discourse we shall not be careful to make either of its divisions-written and oral-prominent at first over the other. We treat the subject of discourse in its comprehensiveness as the expression of our thought in language. We study its laws and processes, its qualities and objects applicable alike to the writer and orator. This being done, there are two specific courses to be followed, in addition to this general one, arising out of the desire or purpose of the writer to deliver his composition publicly."

The title is intended to limit the treatment, in order that elocution and extempore address may be left to other and special works.

Professor Hunt has recast the materials common to the standard treatises, wrought in with these the results of his study and reflection guided by his experience as a teacher of the art and practice of rhetoric, constructing the whole into a system from his own point of view. And it is from the latter we discern the peculiar excellence of his work. He conceives discourse as a transaction. It is a communication of thought and feeling from one person to another, or to many others. In writing for readers, the mind and the heart are in action, the expression is by the medium of language; in reading, the mind is in action in interpretation, the heart in sympathy. In oratory, the whole personality is in action in the transmis sion of thought and feeling, by vocal and bodily signs of thought and emotion. The aims are information, conviction, persuasion, and incitement of the motive forces, in order to decision or action, or both.

It is evident that a true and complete theory of discourse must be based on psychology and the nature and laws of expression. The writer and speaker must employ their powers normally, and must deal in the same manner with the powers of the reader and hearer. And the media of communication between these must be natural to both. And in practice there must be a distinction between absolute and relative expression. The former may be sufficient to record thought. The latter is efficient to communicate thought. It is not enough that the writer utter himself; he must convey himself to the reader. The first form of a discourse, in the mind of the writer, may be conditioned by the laws of mind and language; the last form must be adapted to the receptivity of the reader. Otherwise there is no transaction.

We have before us, accordingly, an attempt at a rational rhetoric. The following quotation will present this aspect of the treatise.

"The science of discourse is not a mental science formally viewed. It finds therein, however, its basis, laws, and suggestive method. He will utterly fail in this department who attempts the study out of its relations to the laws of the human intellect, and thus fails to connect at every point the external forms of expression with the inward action of the soul. The student must be familiar with these mental powers, their laws, methods, and conditions of action. He must be acquainted with the mind he is using and addressing. He must know how the mind works; must understand his nature as mental, moral, and emotional. In a word, he must know man in his complex character. Here is seen

the psychology of discourse. It is an art whose discussion need not be metaphysical, but shown to be based upon those fundamental facts which have been derived from a close observation of our mental processes. Discourse is the art by which rational minds express themselves in a rational manner. He is doing a most valuable work in the interests of this art who ever insists upon thus exalting it above the purely verbal into the higher realm of the philosophic and mental."

This is the master-idea which has possessed the author and given direction and form to his work. Discourse is a rational process of expres sion in order to impression. As, for example, "the theme should be suggested by the specific object or purpose we have in writing." "The most necessary business of the exordium," says Aristotle, "is to throw light on the end for the sake of which the speech is made." "The special form which a discussion may assume depends on the special object in view." "Our conclusions should be composed and expressed for the sake of effect." As to vocabulary, we are to use the best words in the circumstances." "Mere verbal power is one thing. Mental power transmitted through appropriate language is another."

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The writer of this notice for a short time taught rhetoric in the College of New Jersey, was not satisfied with the text-books in use, and, feeling the need of better, urged Professor Hunt, on his appointment to the chair of the department, to prepare a book on the method above described. After the patient labors of many years it is finished and in our hands. But allowing his personal interest in the author and the volume, he is conscious of no partiality in commending the book to the attention of teachers and students, and to writers and speakers. He is confident that a careful study of it will be rewarding even to those who have been well taught and have learned much by experience.

Joseph T. Duryea.

BALZAC. BY EDGAR EVERTSON SALTUS. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

1884.

Ir is surprising that in the country of novel readers one hears so seldom the name of the inventor of the modern novel. French novels are as much read here as in France. The latest and the worst are in great demand. This discriminating and finely written analysis of Balzac's work should encourage lovers of French light literature to go to the fountain head. Mr. Saltus appreciates Balzac at every point; his artistic perfection of detail; his return and his fidelity to nature; his wonderful construction of an entire society; and, greater still, what he happily calls his "discovery of woman," - all are dwelt upon in a style which would give interest to a less fruitful theme.

The explanation of the scheme of the "Comédie Humaine " is full of suggestions of its greatness, and he disposes of the claims of those who consider it immoral in few words. "In his books he has, it is true, agreeably painted the seductions of vice, but its contagious and destructive effects are rigorously exposed; and through all the struggles of his characters probity, purity, and self-denial are alone triumphant. In what then does his immorality consist? In his vast conception it was necessary, he explained, here to signalize an abuse and here to point out an evil; but every writer who has an aim and who breaks a fresh lance in the domains of thought is invariably considered immoral. Socrates was im

moral; Christ was immoral: both were persecuted by the people whom they reformed."

turn to nature.

Mr. Saltus' own words will also best show his opinion of Balzac's re"The Peau du Chagrin' marked the first return'in the nineteenth century to the real and to the true; it gave a fresh impulse to expiring literature, and constituted the corner-stone of the Realistic school, which has found such able exponents not only in the De Goncourts and Flaubert, but in Dickens, Thackeray, Tourgénieff, and a host of lesser lights."

Not less truly he characterizes Balzac's treatment of his female characters. In comparing him in this respect with other French writers from the middle ages down he says: "It is well to point out that when but the female was seen by these writers Balzac discovered the woman, a difference surely as great as between the bottle and the wine." Again he says, "In his portraiture of women not a single type is lacking. Herein he is unexcelled and unsurpassable. That which Euripides considered as the most terrible of all misfortunes, and De Maistre nothing but a beautiful animal, found its most graphic expression through him.'

The slight sketch of his life is all good, but especially so in what relates to his mode of work and habits of thought. The very names of the personages in the "Comédie Humaine" have a charm which makes it a pleasure to read the little sketch of the one hundredth representation of "Mercadet," translated from "Le Constitutionnel." Those bits of wisdom and wit chosen from the thousand great thoughts which crowd his pages are admirably calculated to show his peculiar genius and increase the number of his readers.

The complete list of his works, including those which were only projected, is of value to a lover of Balzac, and must have been difficult to obtain.

L. M. B.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

FROM THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY COMPANY, NEW YORK.

A Catholic Dictionary, containing some account of the Doctrine, Discipline, Rites, Ceremonies, Councils, and Religious Orders of the Catholic Church. By William E. Addis, Secular Priest, Sometime Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland, and Thomas Arnold, M. A., Fellow of the same University. Pp. vi., 897. 1884.

FROM E. P. DUTTON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

History of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures in the Christian Church. By Edward Reuss, Professor in the University of Strasburg. Translated from the Second French Edition, with the Author's own Corrections and Revision, by David Hunter, B. D., late Scholar and Fellow in the University of Glasgow. Pp. xii., 404. 1884. $3.00.

FROM J. B. LIPPINCOTT AND COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. The Mystery of Creation and of Man: to which is added A New View of Future Punishment. By L. C. Baker. Second edition. Pp. 229.

THE

ANDOVER REVIEW:

A RELIGIOUS AND THEOLOGICAL MONTHLY.

VOL. I.-JUNE, 1884.- No. VI.

TRANSITION PERIODS IN RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.

By transition periods in religious thought I mean those of change in its form or substance, spirit or methods. I say change, not progress. Movement is not necessarily progress, though it always attends on it, and is essential to it. It may be its necessary condition, yet not in the direct line of advance, and it may sometimes embarrass us to determine whether or not it is the adjuvant or accompaniment of it. Like a river, it may be deflected into a lateral or refluent course, or be perturbed into eddy and meander, in flanking some headland lying directly across its main direction, which otherwise it could not pass; or it may have to climb by a zigzag path some height whose steep ascent it could not directly surmount.

Such as yet indeterminate movements often perplex us. They may or may not be auxiliary to true progress; and our perplexity may lead to false judgment and false treatment of them; may betray us into careless and disastrous confidence, or into unwarranted and mischievous hostility or alarm; and this very much according to the different prepossessions with which we approach them. There may be, also, varieties of opinion as to what is the direction of genuine progress, what are its tests, and what the true objective goal.

On all these accounts I avoid using the term "progress" in the statement of my theme, as my object in this paper is to inquire into the treatment of transition movements whose character and tendency may be regarded as yet indeterminate — an inquiry apparently of especial relevancy to the present time, as the dangers and difficulties of a transition period seem to many looming up before us and waiting around any mistaken judgment and action of ours in regard to it.

Copyright, 1884, by HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & Co.