cay. So far as I know, the only Inca structure still retaining its roof is that known as the Sondor huasi, which is about one hundred miles south of Cuzco. The roof of thatch and so perfectly constructed that it is in a good state of preservation to this day. The house of Ollantay was covered with a yellow stucco plaster which has retained its position and color. There are many other interesting features connected with the fortress of which we can only mention La Horca, or "the gallows." This is on the opposite side of a small stream which empties into the Urubamba and consists of two artificial projections in the face of the rock and at elevation of at least six thousand feet above the valley, from which capital prisoners were hurled to destruction below.

Here again throughout this system of fortifications one is amazed, by the enormous size of the stones which have been so periectly joined together. As one rides along on his mule in any part of the valley he is able to discern not only the tombs, but houses often of considerable size placed at projecting points so inaccessible that one would think they were better adapted for a condor's nest than a human habitation. The valley of the Yucay is pierced in many places by smaller streams emptying into the Urubamba. Nearly every one of these valleys contain fortresses or palaces of regal splendor, and it is here that the future investigator who is looking for the splendor of the Inca rulers should seek.

The fourth great race or language stock of Peru is the Aymarà. The region occupied by these people is that of the Titicaca basin, which consists of a great plateau five hundred miles in extent, which has been called the Thibet of the New World. The greater part of this region is in the modern republic of Bolivia embraces that portion of Peru drained by Lake Titicaca. The most prominent points of interest in this plateau are centered about Sillustani, Acora and Tiahuanaco. Besides these points the entire plateau is covered with groups of Chulpas, or burial towers. These are often fifteen to twenty feet in height, made cut stone and contained the dead with their accompanying objects. Many of the Chulpas in the Bolivian plains are made of adobe.

The ruins of Tiahuanaco constitute the sphinx of the New World, inasmuch as they were found in ruins by the earliest Spaniards, and there was no tradition concerning them in the possession of the people of that locality. I shall not attempt a description of the ruins themselves, for that has already been done many times before, but never better than in Squier's important work on Pera. I may be permitted here to state that there is no general work on Peru better than that of Squier which is indispensible either to the casual visitor or the archæologist. His descriptions of the people, the ancient ruins, and the scenery are always painstaking, vivid, and trustworthy. At Tiahuanaco, as at so many other of the ruins of Peru, one is is immediately struck with the idea of incompletion. The entire plain lying between the ruins and the quarry near the mouth of the Desaguadero river is strewn with great blocks of sandstone and granite, many of them still in the rough state and others partially finished. The small objects which have been found from time to time among the ruins, such as gold, silver and copper ornaments, pottery and implements of stone, resemble very much those found in the older ruins of Cuzco and it seems to me highly probable that the ancestors of the same race that built the Temple of the Sun and the Fortress of Sachshuanan laid the foundations of the Temple of Justice, the Temple, the Palace, and the Fortress of Tiahuanaco.

Besides the structures already spoken of there are countless others, many of them equally well worthy of attention, scattered up and down the backbone of the Andes. Architecturally considered they bear no resemblance to the structures of Central America and Mexico. None of them are found on artificially constructed mounds. The true arch is never found, nor has the use of cement ever been discovere 1 in any part of Pera. Many of these structures, however, are covered with a coating of stucco such as on the Palace of Ollantay, the temples on the islands in Lake Titacaca and many of the buildings of the Gran Chimu near Trujillo.

Looking now at Pera as a whole one is struck at the great energy displayed at every point by the ancient peoples. Although Peru is within the tropics. it possesses neither a tropical climate nor a tropical fauna or flora. On the coast people had to contend with a barren, rainless desert. In the interior they encountered narrow valleys shut in by almost perpendicular walls and each one practically isolated from its neighbor. The conditions which the earliest inhabitants had to face were certainly not inviting, but were such as to call forth all their energy and ingenuity. In many respects their conditions were similar to those which confronted the earliest dwellers of the Nile Valley. Like the ancient Egyptians they proved themselves competent to meet every emergency. On the coast they converted the hostile desert into a fertile plain. This was done, as we have already said, by means of the acequias, or irrigating canals and by the use of guano as a fertilizer. By these means they regulated their water supply and were abled to secure a never failing rotation of crops. In the interior rain falls during certain periods of the year, and was not necessary to provide for an artificial supply of water. But the population in the fertile valleys soon became too large and it was necessary to increase the supply of arable land. This they did by means of terraces which was so skillfully done that their descendants today find them in a good state of preservation. It is interesting to note that the inhabitants of the province of Huarochiri assigned to them a mythological origin, thus bearing witness of their great antiqui. ty. The fact that each little community was by nature practically isolated from its neighbor led them to build roads and these again were so well cor structed that they furnish the only means of communication in the interior today.

From the capital of the empire, Cazco, radiated a system of roads in every direction; some of them hundreds of miles in extent and often reaching to the coast. Where the road passed over the despoblado, as the barren, uninhabited places are called, they built tambos, or places of shelter where the tired traveler might remain securely sheltered during the night or take temporary refuge from the fierce snow storms which are so common throughout these regions. Many of the larger towns possessed schools in addition to their fortresses and temples. It is a curious coincidence that the present College of Cuzco is built on the foundations of the school supposed to have been built during the reign of the Inca Rocca, while the cloisters of the present Convent of Santo Domingo are practically the same as those used by the votaries of the Temple of the Sun, and the present Convent of Santa Catalina was formerly the sacred edifice of the Virgins of the Sun. The instruction given in the schools must have been somewhat of a similar nature to that of our modern manual training schools. In addition the students were taught the principles of astronomy and

religion. The political basis of the empire was a confederation of the Gens, whose representative was the Inca or head, whose position was hereditary through the female line. That the sway of the Inca was in many respects absolute as well as despotic is shown in the vast number of public works which could have been built only by the united efforts of countless people ruled by one mind.

Let us now look at the people of the Peru of today, for in many parts of the country we find the lineal descendants of the ancient Quichi as and Aymaràs. This is true, however, only of the interior. There is probably no such mixture to be found in the world as that now living on the coast. These people are commonly called Cholos, although there are no less than fifteen or twenty different names for the classes which have been formed by the intermarrying among the different races. The principal races which have contributed to this mixture are the native Peruvians, Spaniards, Negroes and Chinese. Besides these there have been, of course, a constant inter-marriage between the native people with nearly all of the European races. The Chinese were imported in large numbers about twenty years ago and were for many years held in a condition of slavery working on the plantations and in the guano islands. Their position recently, however, has been much better and now nearly all the petty shops on the coast are in their hands. The negroes were introduced early in the century andwere employed principally in the sugar haciendas. The real Cholo, the off spring of the Spaniard and the Indian, forms of course the greatest part of the population of the coast. They are generally sober and industrious, but they believe greatly in the proverbial mañana, never doing today what they can do tomorrow, or better still, next week. However, they are always polite and good natured and if one will lead them instead of trying to drive them he can really get a great deal of work out of them in a day. The entire machinery of the Government is in the hands of the old families, the descendants of the old Spanish viceroys and early rulers. In the interior the conditions are quite different. There, no such admixture is to be found as on the coast. In many places exist the lineal descendants of the ancient Quichuas and Aymaràs, living in much the same manner as did their ancestors four hundred years ago. They construct the same houses, wear the same clothes, eat the same food, but in every other way are probably not so well off. Four hundred years of serfdom and tyranny have not tended to raise their spirits or to increase their happiness. As one rides along on his mule every man, woman, and child, not only bows but removes his hat. It is done not as an act of politeness but of servitude. They are chiefly an agricultural people and have their patches of barley and corn, and their flocks of llamas, sheep and cattle. Under the long sway of too often degraded Catholic priests their ancient religion is only modified in that their superstitious beliefs have been encouraged and enlarged.

At Tiahuanaco I witnessed a three day's feast given by the church in celebration and in honor of one of its festivals. It differed in no essential feature from many of the original feasts as described by the earliest Spanish writers. At Huaracando, near Cuzco, before I could get workmen to assist me in making excavations among the ancient graves, I had first to secure an order over them from the Gobernador. With this military command the men consented to work. but first stupefied themselves with aguardiente, or native

rum and then went through a ceremony in which they disclaimed any willingness on their part to do the work, and with entreaties begged the spirits of their ancestors, as they recognized them, to direct their maledictions against us, as we alone were responsible for the sacrilege. In another part of the cere mony they said that there was no difference dividing them from their brothers and they professed themselves to be true children of the sun and worshipers at the shrine of the Great Pachacamac. But they said, "We know also besides the Great Sun, his son Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost." The ceremony ended by their offering libations of aguardiente, chicha, and coca to appease the spirits of the dead in the tombs which we were about to enter.

[THE END.]

A SINGULAR PREHISTORIC PIPE.

HIS singular pipe was found near the shores of a small lake in Coahoma Co., Miss., by H. J. Johnson, during the spring of 1893, while plowing. It was buried head down about eighteen inches below the surface. There were no mounds near, but many traces of mound-builders surrounded it, crumbled brick, broken pottery, etc. About twelve feet from it

was found a small discoidal stone. The figure is that of a man in a crouching position, the arms bound with twisted ropes and the feet doubled back underneath it. It is very graceful, the only parts out of proportion being the hands, the reason for which is, that with the tools which they possessed they could not cut them smaller. The illustration is a little over half size, and represents the image well. The dotted lines show the shape of the bowl. The only mutilation is on the head, the top of which is broken off above the eyes. This is very unfortunate as it destroys the head-dress, a part of which still remains. The face is of the type common to the Southern tumuli, and is finely chiseled. The mouth is large and the lips fairly prominent. I would judge from what is left of the forehead that it was broad and high. The nose is large, but not flat like a negro's or like that of an Indian. The sculptor who could give a rongh stone head such a pleading look as this one has, would be fully capable of giving the race characteristics. The wrist and collar bones and the ankles are carefully and correctly chiseled, as are also the finger joints of the right hand. The left is unfinished. Although unpolished there is a carefulness of execution about this image, a beauty of design and a knowledge both of anatomy and carving such as I have never seen equaled on stonework of this character. What is the meaning of this relic and where did it come from? It may be intended to represent the conquest of some noted chief who portrays the face and condition of his captured rival, as Mr. Moorehead suggests, or it may have been carved by the more civilized nations of Central America and got into the possession of the ruder nations of the north by barter. CHAS. W. CLARK, Wilbraham, Mass.

NOTE. The editor remembers having seen a pipe representing a bound captive in the possession of an Ohio collector some years ago. In that case the arms were similarly bound, but the effigy was smaller and hardly so well executed, The cut does not do Mr. Clark's pipe justice.

EFFIGY MOUNDS NEAR AURORA, ILLINOIS.

HOSE interested especially in the subject of the imitative class of mounds have doubtless at times speculated on the geographical relations of the same, that is, as to how far such works extend in various directions from a given centre. It is a well known fact that their apparent headquarters are in Southern Wisconsin, a region in which these, the most interesting productions of the mound building period-the effigy mounds -once swarmed, if the expression may be allowed. That they extend thence southward into Illinois at least 20 miles and are found in that state as far east as the valley of Rock River has been shown in a previous article.* But that they are to be met with fully 50 miles south of the southern boundary of Wis

*See "Science" of Sept. 7, 1888.