cessful. Leaving the Red Sea at Massoua, it visited at first the country of the Bogos, and its capital, Keren, situated on the confines of Abyssinia and Nubia. Here the delegation separated, and Messrs. de Heuglin and Steudner (who, as we have seen, subsequently joined Madame Tinne), with Dr. Schubert, traversed Abyssinia, visiting Adoa, Axum, and Gondar, and finally reached Khartüm by a long detour; while Messrs. Munzinger and Kinzelbach, going directly to Khartüm, proceeded thence to Kordofan, and attempted to enter Darfür, but found that their lives would almost certainly be sacrificed if they entered that savage region, and prudently relinquished the attempt. M. Munzinger returned to Massoua, and M. Kinzelbach went back to Germany.

In Egypt, an Egyptian institute has been established, which is busying itself with questions of geography, history, agriculture, archæology, and medical science. It has already published a large volume of transactions. The Egyptian Government has commenced a topographical survey of the country. Baron von Kremer, Austrian consul at Cairo, has prepared a very elaborate work on the Gipsies of Egypt. M. Burgsch has communicated to the French Geographical Society at Paris a dissertation on Avaris and Tanis.

Proceeding westward, we find that M. de Beurmann, at the commencement of 1863, traversed Tripoli from Bengehazi to Audjelah, intending to penetrate by that route into Waday, in search of Dr. Vogel, but, finding access to that kingdom, by the direct route, cut off, he returned as far as Mourzouk, and thence turned his course toward Bornou. His arrival at Kuka, in the summer, has been ascertained. M. Duveyrier, who spent the greater part of the years 1861 and 1862 in southern Tunis and the Country of the Tuaricks, has published a very interesting monograph on the Tuaricks and their country. He found a chain of mountains (the Hoggar range) with an altitude of about 6,750 feet, in a region which all maps have hitherto represented as a vast plain. The Tuaricks are remarkable among the natives of Africa, and especially among Mohammedan natives, for the liberty, influence, and authority enjoyed by their women. In this respect they stand in striking contrast to any other people of Northern Africa. A delegation from the Tuaricks visited France, in 1862, and made a very favorable impression on the nation and on the Government, by their dignity and intelligence. An experiment has been in progress for some years for the improvement of the caravan route across the Sahara, by means of artesian wells which should render the regions around them fertile oases. Eminent French engineers have been engaged in it and it has proved successful.

Turning to the western coast, Senegambia, where the French have a colony of consider able extent, has been agitated by wars between several of the native tribes. M. Braouézec, a

French traveller who has spent some years in Senegambia, and made many important discoveries there, has communicated, in 1863, to the Bulletin of the French Geographical Society, an account of an excursion made by him in 1861 into Djolof, to explore the country lying between Lake Ghier and the Gambia river. Of Soudan there is little of interest to record. Dr. Baikie, whose exploration of the Niger has been noticed in a previous volume, has communicated to the Royal Geographical Society a paper on Nupé. The black Marabout, El Haji Omar, who has been for years one of the most bitter and bloodthirsty enemies of Europeans in Africa, and who was defeated in his repeated efforts to drive the French out of Senegambia, from 1854 to 1859, has, by the force of his character, attained to supreme power in Western Soudan.

Upper and Lower Guinea have been explored by individual travellers during the past year, though by no large expedition. The British Government have added the new and thriving city of Abbeokuta, and the country adjacent, to their African possessions, and Captain Burton, the African traveller, now British consul at Fernando Po, who visited it early in 1863, and, in connection with Captain Bedingfield, explored the river Ogun on which it is situa ted, states that it is fast becoming one of the most powerful States of Upper Guinea. The British Government have also occupied Whydah, and are exercising a restraining influence upon the inhuman barbarities of the King of Dahomey. MM. Guillevin and Répin, two French travellers who have visited Dahomey, confirm the previous accounts of his cruelties. The kingdom of Yarriba, which, a few years since, was an important and powerful State in the Niger, had been entirely broken in pieces, and considerable portions of it are now absorbed in Abbeokuta. The region of the Gaboon and the mountainous region about its headwaters, where M. du Chaillu hunted the gorillas, have been objects of special attention the past year. MM. Braouézec and Touchard, French naval officers, have ascended and surveyed the river, and testify to the cannibalism of the Fans (pronounced Fongs) and other tribes of that region; Captain Burton has spent some time with this tribe, and contributed an interesting paper on their habits, customs, etc., to the Anthropological Review; and, on another occasion, ascended the Cameroons mountain, a volcano near the Gulf of Biafra, which he regards as the Oev Oxnμa of the ancient geog raphers.

MM. du Bellay and Sreval, two French naval officers, explored in the summer of 1862 the river Ogo-Wai, which discharges its waters into the Bight of Biafra. It is a mile and a half wide for a distance of about 180 miles, and is formed by the junction of two large rivers, the Okanda and N'Gounyai, the latter flowing from the S. E., and the former believed to have its source in Lake Tchad. The country

is rich in ivory, ebony, caoutchouc and palm oil, but the natives are ignorant and degraded. Cassange, one of the Portuguese possessions in Southern Guinea, has been seized by the natives, and is still held by them. Mossamedes, a newly founded sea port on the coast of Benguela, established by the Portuguese, is growing rapidly, and has already become an important city. Madagascar has during the past year been the scene of a revolution, and its king, crowned in 1862, has fallen a victim to his own madness and folly. (See MADAGASCAR.) The island is peopled by two different races, each divided into numerous tribes. The ruling race, the Hovas, are of Malay origin, and comprise only one tenth of the population, being in all about 450,000. The subject tribes are of the negro race, but are taller, stronger, and more energetic than their brethren on the coast. The two large islands east of Madagascar, Mauritius and Reunion, have been very diligently explored within the past two or three years. Of the latter, M. George Azema has published a very complete history, and M. Maillard has issued, during the past year, an extended and finely illustrated work on the topography, geology, and natural history of the island. Mr. James Morris has contributed to the "Journal of Arts" an interesting memoir on the geography, &c., of Mauritius, and M. Leduc has presented to the department of manuscripts of the Imperial Library of Paris an elaborate manuscript history of that island, with numerous maps and plans. The port of Obok, near the Gulf of Tujura, on the coast of Somauli, has been acquired by France, and will be occupied hereafter as a station for the French line of steamers of the Messageries Imperiales Company, between Suez and Cochin China.

Oceanica, or at least that portion of it included in Australasia and Polynesia, claims our attention. In Australia, the result of the three exploring expeditions sent out in search of O'Hara Burke and his party, has been laid before the public during the past year. They have traversed Australia from N. to S. and from S. to N. in four different directions, all of them east of the meridian of 131° E. from Greenwich. Stuart has nearly traversed the continent three times, and in the last expedition reached the open sea on Van Diemen's Gulf, on the 24th of July, 1862. Lansborough, leaving the Gulf of Carpentaria on the 10th of February, 1862, struck S. E., and then followed nearly the course of the 145th meridian to Melbourne, which he reached on the 2d of June.

McKinlay took a more extended route, leaving Adelaide on the 14th of August, 1861, and proceeding northward, nearly on the 138th meridian, passed that locality laid down on the maps as Lake Torrens, which proved to be a shallow valley, which is covered with water during the rainy season, but becomes dry from the excessive evaporation of the dry season. Proceeding north ward, with a slight inclination to the west, they reached the river Leichardt

in about 19° S. lat., nearly 100 miles from its mouth, on the 6th of May, and followed it to a point five or six miles from the Gulf of Carpentaria. From this locality they turned their faces southeastward, McKinlay having determined to explore the interior of Queensland. The previous journey across the continent had been made without serious suffering or privation, but the route to Port Denison, in Queensland, was attended with great distress from want of water and scarcity of food, and the party were compelled to kill most of their draft animals, bullocks, horses, and camels, for allaying their hunger. They reached the first station in the settled districts on the 6th of August, 1862.

These three expeditions, taken in connection with that of Burke and Wills, and the previous ones of McDouall Stuart, and Sturt and Eyre, give a very accurate idea of the interior of Australia. It is not, as was supposed by the earlier explorers, a congeries of lakes, nor, as Sturt supposed, a vast arid desert. Considerable portions of it are well watered, and have a rich productive soil. Other portions are subject to seasons of drought, but in the moist seasons will yield abundant crops. A third and remaining portion has a poor soil, and is almost wholly barren, yet in the wet seasons yields some grass for herds. There is, perhaps, a larger amount of rainfall on Central Australia than in most countries; but the evaporation which takes place in the clear intensely hot weather is very rapid, and soon reduces the plains to drought, and dries up the lakes and considerable streams. The conservation of the profuse rainfall in tanks, and the resort to artificial irrigation where cultivation is required, will cause this desert to blossom like the rose.

In January, 1863, James Morrill, a seaman who had been shipwrecked in the Peruvian in 1846, and was the only one of the four persons who had reached the shore who survived the hardships that followed their shipwreck, came into the settlements near Port Denison. He had spent nearly seventeen years in the interior of Australia, mostly among the natives, who were, on the whole, very kind to him, but were unwilling that he should return to civilized life. He confirms the reports of the cannibalism of the natives, though he says they will not kill their fellow men, simply for the sake of eating them. The bushmen, he says, are cruel and treacherous even in their dealings with each other.

Mr. Alfred Howitt, son of the celebrated author William Howitt, who had been sent out by the colonial government of Victoria to seek for the survivors of the Burke and Wills party, and who found King, the only remaining mem ber of the party, on the banks of Cooper's Creek, has, during 1862 and 1863, been engaged in an exploration of the western portion of Central Australia, and has visited the large lakes of that region.

New Zealand has, during the past year, been

involved in further trouble with the Maoris or native inhabitants. The Maoris, like most of the Polynesian islanders, are fast melting away under the contact of civilization. Intelligent residents of the islands predict that they will not outlive another generation. The Sandwich and Society Islands are becoming depopulated so far as their aboriginal inhabitants are concerned, with fearful rapidity. The Sandwich Islands, in the time of Capt. Cook, were reputed to have 400,000 inhabitants; in 1832, by actual enumeration, they had 130,313; in 1861, 69,800. The Society Islands had 200,000 inhabitants in Cook's time; they have now not more than 10,000 aborigines.

In New Zealand, M. de Hochstetter has been engaged in the exploration of the northern island, and has visited and described the singular lake, Roto Mohama, or the Hot-water Lake. This lake has its sources in numerous springs rising from its bottom and sides. It has a temperature of about 208° F. A German geographer, Julius Haast, has been exploring the southern island, and has made a survey of its lofty mountains; the chain has a mean altitude of about 7,475 feet. He has discovered the existence of an immense glacier, which feeds Lake Tapuko, through a river which he has named, from one of the colonists, Godley river. Dr. Hector, already favorably known by his researches in the Rocky mountains, has also devoted himself to the study of the physical geography of New Zealand. The European population of New Zealand, according to the census of 1862, amounted to 109,308 persons. Valuable gold mines have been discovered at several points in both of the larger islands, the most productive being in the province of Otago, in the southern island, and in Coromandel, and the province of Auckland, in the northern island. A learned society has been established in the province of Canterbury in the southern island, called the "Philosophical Institute of Canterbury."

New Caledonia, one of the Loyalty Islands, is claimed by the French, and is rapidly settling with French colonists. Lieut. Chambeyron was engaged in 1862 in exploring the interior of the island and surveying its coasts. He ascertained the height of Humboldt Peak, the principal mountain of the island, situated between seven and eight miles from the coast, to be about 5,300 feet. The Society or Tahitian Isles are under the protection of France, and French emigration is commencing thither on a considerable scale. An extensive botanical garden there has proved very successful in acclimatizing the useful plants of other countries.

The Fiji or Viti Islands, of whose exploration by Dr. Seeman some account was given last year, have been the subject of another volume of great interest by Col. Smythe and his wife, entitled "Ten Months in the Fiji Islands." Col. Smythe was the commissioner sent out by the English Government to investigate the proposed cession of the island to

Great Britain. He regards the Fijians as in many respects a superior race, but like most of the Polynesians they are wholly under the influence of their chiefs. They have been, and some of the heathen tribes undoubtedly are still, cannibals, but they are not so fearless or ferocious as the Tonga islanders were before the introduction of Christianity, and those who have come under the influence of the missionaries are gentle and amiable. Melanesia, under which term are included the several groups lying N. E. of Australia, the Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz Islands, Banks Islands, New Hebrides and Loyalty Islands, has, for the last four or five years, under the constant and self-denying labors of the missionary Bishop J. C. Patteson (of the English Church) and his coadjutors, been improving in civilization. He has visited the different groups every year, and where it was possible, brought off young lads to be educated at the missionary college of Kohi-marima in New Zealand, founded by the liberality of the distinguished authoress, Miss Yonge. These lads, after receiving education and Christian instruction, are returned to their native islands to exert their influence for good there.

Philosophical Geography has received a valuable contribution in a recent work by the Hon. George P. Marsh, entitled "Man and Nature; or Physical Geography as modified by Human Action," published by Charles Scribner, N. Y.

The mortality among men eminent for their contributions to geographical science during the year 1863 has been very large. We mention the names of the following, of most of whom biographical notices will be found elsewhere in this volume. Among our own countrymen, Edward Robinson, D.D., LL.D., distinguished for his researches in Biblical geography; Major Howard Stansbury, the explorer of the Great Salt Lake of Utah; Major-General Amiel W. Whipple, one of the officers on the Pacific Railroad exploration; Colonel John J. Abert, for many years chief of the corps of Topographical Engineers; and Rear Admiral Andrew H. Foote, whose explorations on the African coast were of great interest. Of foreign geographers, there were Edme Jomard (Jomard l'Institut), of Paris; Dr. Carl Vogel, father of the traveller Vogel, and author of numerous geographical works and maps; Simon Fraser, the discoverer of Fraser river in British Columbia; Dr. George Robinson, an English Oriental traveller; Capt. Philippe de Kerhallet, the French hydrographer; Mallat de Bassilan, an explorer in Malaysia and author of a "Description des Philippines; Moritz von Beurman, a German explorer in Africa, murdered by the Sultan of Waday; Dr. Henry Steudner, one of Madame Tinne's suite, who died on the Upper Nile; Richard Thornton, the geologist of Livingston's expedition; Rear Admiral Jehenne, a French naval officer, who had explored the coasts of Eastern Africa with great assiduity; and perhaps also Consul Petherick, of Khartüm.

GEORGIA. Much suffering was experienced in Northern Georgia from the scarcity of food in the early part of 1863. Such were the appre

hensions of Gov. Brown, that he issued a call for the Legislature of the State to convene on the 26th of March. The object of the session was to secure the application of all the productive labor of the State to the cultivation of articles necessary to sustain life. The short crop of 1862, and the difficulty of transporting supplies, had forewarned the authorities of the dangers of a famine. In Savannah both corn meal and bacon were scarce in the spring, and the supplies which existed were greatly reduced by the seizures of the Government. In the hospitals bacon and corn bread were the only articles furnished for nourishment.

The impressments of provisions for the army caused much dissatisfaction. In March thirty cents per pound were allowed for bacon when the market price was ninety cents. This difference in the price allowed by the impressing officers, and the market value, led to the preparation of a case, by mutual agreement, at Atlanta, which was to be carried to the Supreme Court of the State to test the constitutionality of the law. The plaintiff's denied the authority of the Impressment Commissioners to fix an arbitrary price to be paid for every man's goods which the Government might from necessity impress, without regard to the circumstances of each particular case. They denied that prices thus fixed were or could be, in all cases, "just compensation," and that it was just compensation in this case; hence the suit involved the constitutionality of this feature of the law, and the competency of the Congress to pass such a law.

the

In September, Gov. Brown issued a proclamation on the subject to the people. It was based on information that subalterns, without authority, often made impressments, and gave certificates which were not valid. He admitted power of the Government to make the impressments, and urged the citizens to resist when they were made by persons who could not show proper authority. He also directed all the civil and military authorities to assist persons in defending their property against illegal seizures, and to arrest and commit to jail all persons making impressments without authority, until a warrant could be issued against them for robbery. The following resolution, offered in the Legislature at its session in November, also illustrates the oppressive operation of the impressment law:

Whereas, the impressment laws passed by the Congress of the Confederate States have been greatly perverted and violated by the impressment officers, and those professing to be, by reason of which many of the citizens of this State have been greatly harassed, defrauded, and wilfully wronged; therefore, be it

Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened, That the Secretary of War be, and he is most respectfully requested to revoke the appointment of all the impressment officers of this State, and to have appointed in their place and stead, in counties where it may be necessary to

make impressments to feed and support our gallant armies, one or more responsible citizens, not liable to military duty, residing in the counties respectively.

Liberal arrangements were made throughout the State for the relief of the families of soldiers and others. As an instance, in Muscagee county, the grand jury made an assessment of sixty thousand dollars for the benefit of the poor. The State appropriation to the county amounted to thirty-three thousand dollars for the relief of indigent families of soldiers, whether living or dead. There was also a relief association at Columbus, with a capital of $100,000, which furnished provisions to soldiers' families at less than the market prices.

The election for State officers took place on the first Monday of October. The candidates were Joseph E. Brown, who held the office when the ordinance of secession was passed, and Joshua Hill, a member of Congress at the same period. (See ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, 1861, pp. 211, 212, 213; also CYCLOPÆDIA, 1862, pp. 272.) Gov. Brown, in his letter consenting to a renomination, said: "We should never, under any circumstances, consent to a reconstruction of the old Union, or to any political union with the Abolition States upon any terms whatever. Nor should we ever lay down our arms till the independence of these Confederate States is unconditionally recognized."

The views of Mr. Hill were also expressed in a letter that was made public. After stating that he had no desire whatever for the office for which he had been nominated, he says:

Since my resignation of my seat as a member of the Congress of the United States, which occurred immediately upon the withdrawal of my colleagues, I have my honest convictions that the destruction of the Union taken no active part in politics. I had often expressed would be followed by a long and bloody war, disastrous beyond precedent in its results to every section; and reconstructing it on a basis more permanent and prothat the idea of dissolving the Union with the hopes of tective of the rights of the slave States, was fallacious and absurd. I compared the effort to accomplish such an impossibility to the folly of taking the most delicate glass and crushing it to atoms, in the vain hope of collecting the scattered fragments, and, by reuniting them, than it was before. It was a strange delusion, without making the scattered vessel more comely and durable which the Union could not have been broken. I believe what I said of the impossibility of reconstruction. Time and events have deepened these convictions. guine orators "that the Yankees could not fight if they I felt little comfort in the flippant assurance of sanwould, and would not if they could." I knew the time was when they had fought, and I believed that, by collision with our brave troops, they would learn to do it again. In war, as in politics, it is unwise to underrate your adversary.

The war, with all its afflictive train of suffering, privation, and death, has served to eradicate all idea of reconstruction, even with those who made it the basis of their arguments in favor of disunion. I always regarded it as impossible, except by the success of the Northern arms, and then only the Union in name, and not the free Government of our fathers. I want no such Union as that, and will not accept it.

The best argument in favor of disunion, and the one most relied on by its advocates, was apprehension for the security of our slave property. If it was not then in danger, it is in extreme peril now.

The disasters of July evidently led to a consideration of the subject of reconstruction as well in Georgia as in other States. Thus, in August, ex-Senator Toombs was led to write as follows:

WASHINGTON, GA., August 18th, 1863.

Dr. A. Bees, Americus, Ga.:

MY DEAR SIR: Your letter of the 15th inst., asking my authority to contradict the report that "I am in favor of reconstruction," was received this evening. I can conceive no extremity to which my country could be reduced in which I would for a single moment entertain any proposition for any union with the North on any terms whatever. When all else is lost, I prefer to unite with the thousands of our own countrymen who have found honorable deaths, if not graves, on the battle field. Use this letter as you please. Very truly, your friend, &c.,

R. TOOMBS. In August, a print issued at Macon said: To-day, and in the heart of Georgia, may be found men ready to discuss a reconstruction of these dissevered Unions! Men willing to degrade themselves, to enslave their wives and children-to insult our dead in their soldiers' graves-to make for their country a history of shame and infamy-to be the mock of all men for all time to come, by voluntary reunion with our vile, our despicable enemies. Reconstruction means but subjugation. To ask for readmission to the United States would be to petition for our own slavery and degradation.

Another in Savannah, a few days later, said:

That there are submissionists among us, remarks the Milledgeville Union," all now see. They are banding together to form a political Union. Who compose this party or league? First and foremost the men who have never wanted the South to succeed. These are mostly men born at the North, or who have relatives in that section. Next comes the speculator, who has got rich out of the sufferings of our people, and who has bought property with his ill-gotten gains, which property he hopes to save by swearing allegiance to Lincoln, when it is put in danger. The next class (in shame and sorrow we say it) is composed of men who are between forty-five and fifty years of age, and who fear that they may yet be called to the field. They may have sons in the army-they may have had their sons butchered by the hated foe, but to keep at home themselves they are ready to dip their fingers in the heart's blood of an only son, and write traitor on his pale cold forehead. If we are not right, we are wrong. If we are not right in this war, we are all traitors. The man, therefore, who is ready to submit to Lincoln confesses himself guilty of treason, and deserves a

halter.

It appears that there were a very few who were bold enough to come out openly for reconstruction, but there were many who secretly harbored a wish for it. The position taken by the secessionists is shown in the above extracts and in the following: "Now, the time has long passed for discussing that subject. Secession is a fixed fact: we have been fighting two years for it; and I cannot separate between opposition to seceders and opposition to secession, which means opposition to the war, and that means submission to Abraham Lincoln."

A third candidate for governor was nominated, by the name of Furlow; but it does not appear what his peculiar views were. The entire vote cast was 64,704. The vote shows that Brown had 36,558; Hill, 18,122; Furlow, 10,

024-total vote, 64,704. For President in 1860 the total vote was 106,365.

Many of the candidates for the Congress at Richmond claimed the votes of the citizens on the ground that they were in favor of an "honorable peace."

Gov. Brown, in his message to the Legislature of the State, which convened in November, recommended the repeal of the substitute law, and the employment of negroes as teamsters and in similiar capacities in the army; that the pay of officers be increased twenty-five per cent., and that of privates to twenty-two dollars per month, and that the salaries of all State officers be increased; that cotton planting be restricted to one fourth of an acre to the hand, and that every energy be directed to the production of food; that $500,000 be appropriated to support soldiers' families; that $8,000,000 be appropriated as a military fund, and $2,000,000 as a clothing fund; that the militia be reorganized, so as to include all between eighteen and sixty, and that the 10th day of December be observed throughout the nation as a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer. He also opposed loaning the credit of the State to the Confederate Government or the endorsement of its bonds.

To meet this indebtedness, the interest and principal, the State had not only her taxable wealth, returned in 1863 as $991,596,383, and in 1860 returned at $672,322,777, but held stocks in banks and railroads amounting to $992,400, and the Western and Atlantic railroad entire, which was valued by a committee of the Legislature before the inflation of prices at $8,840,124, and which paid into the treasury as its net earnings during the year the sum of $1,650,000.

Resolutions were unanimously passed by the Legislature, reenacting the resolution in reference to the secession of the State, and pledging anew its entire resources, in vindication of the position then assumed, and declaring the determination not to become weary of the war until independence was achieved.

The military operations touched Georgia only on the southeastern and northwestern borders. Some naval movements in the waters adjacent to the Savannah river, which involved the attack on Fort McAllister, the capture of the ironclad steamer Atlanta, and the burning of the town of Darien, were the most important in the southeastern part of the State. Darien was burnt on the 11th of June by a force landed from two transports, accompanied by three gunboats. All the churches except the Methodist, the markethouse, courthouse, jail, clerk's office, and all the houses except three, were destroyed. The