To compound this problem is the fact of constantly changing work patterns. From the present, in which adults must typically expect to change vocations three times in a lifetime, it is but a step to a future in which learning five, six or seven different vocational skills will reflect the normal life style of Americans. This means that methods must be contrived to keep curricula closer to the needs of the society and to develop quickly in people skills which, in other times, could mature through four or more years of leisurely learning. Men and women in their middle years whose jobs have been rendered obsolete through the almost perpetual workings of technology cannot afford long periods of inactivity to learn a new set of skills, nor can a suddenly modified industrial style wait overly long for people to assume new tasks.

But these demands, if met, present yet another urge for innovation. As new materials are added to the curriculum, as many more people with varying needs are accepted by higher education; and, as new equipment is brought to the service of teaching, the cost of education must go up until even the most affluent of institutions will falter. This condition is intensified by the market forces which have made professional instructional talent so expensive and the expansion of collegiate interests to research and service, all of which are reflected in basic educational costs. Somehow, if the society is to meet its many obligations of helping underdeveloped societies, rebuilding obsolete and decaying cities, and creating adequate transportation systems, ways must be found to provide better education at lower per unit cost. And ways should be discovered to charge these costs equitably to parents, students, and the larger society.

But perhaps the most profound force of all is the fact that the life span of human beings is increasing so that even now many females must expect to live well past 80, and some have speculated that a norm of 100 is not an impossibility within the present century. These human years are not needed by the productive institutions, yet they must be filled with humanly satisfying activities. A higher education which might reasonably extend from age 17 or 18 to age 70 or 80 cannot rely on traditional concepts of a four-year span, a residential situation, or a rigid system of prerequisites. Nor can it apply to the educational needs of men and women in their fifties with the instructional techniques devised for late adolescent students.... Of course, other forces could be enumerated. A culturally impoverished segment of the society is now insistently demanding higher education. These demands simply cannot be accommodated if older concepts of intelligence and prediction prevail. An urbanized people will require different campus organization and different calendars than did a people whose agrarian style of life was set by the planting seasons. And new ways to develop new values in a culture in which traditional value systems have atrophied seem imperative. How to teach, for example, the values which derive from the similarity in gene patterns and functions among all living organisms including man, when previous value systems placed man in a unique role on earth. But perhaps enough has been indicated to make clear the challenges to innovation.

Some educational innovation began at the end of World War II as colleges and universities sought to satisfy the educational needs of veterans through general education courses, books of readings rather than textbooks, and accelerated programs leading to degrees in less than four years. However, the full flood of innovative effort dates from approximately 1957-59 when the technological supremacy of the United States was challenged by Russian achievement, and the predictions of numbers and complexities in education began to come true. In 1959 Stephens

technology, of psychological theory, and of educational readiness for innovation. Their opinions serve as a description of the levels of innovation reached by that time and a suggestion of the things to come. Their report said in part:

"First it is quite apparent that American technology has produced a wide variety of devices which could be used in education. Motion pictures, television and its more recent developments of video tape and effective kinescope, tape recorders, electronic information storing machines, test-scoring devices, and recording devices of high fidelity are all in existence. The amazing thing is that they have been so little used that an institution actually contemplating the adaptation of any one of them to a college situation is regarded as a pioneer. It is true that some research workers and some theorists have argued for the significance of educational television or of foreign language laboratories. Relatively few colleges have taken the leap actually to experiment with these on any large scale basis.

"A second issue perhaps helps explain the first. Adaptation of new devices to the process of education requires adequate theory to undergird experimentation and a definite reconsideration of the role of the teacher. Traditionally the school has operated on fairly simple theories of how people learn. A teacher is one who knows -who by various methods informs students of the substance of that knowledge. Knowledge and the mental processes by which it is manipulated were seen as the prime concerns of teaching. As the use of such things as television, motion pictures and the like are studied further, analyses should be made of the processes of communication, the processes by which people reach decisions, and the processes by which personal identification of student with teacher takes place. As devices for the transmission of knowledge are created which do so more efficiently than can individual teachers, some consideration must be given to other tasks which do need a teacher. It may well be that the typical teacher of the future will spend only a small part of his time providing information. Such time as he does spend may be in a carefully rehearsed demonstration or lecture. The rest of his time may be occupied in conferences with individual students or with small groups of students. If teachers can discover personally satisfying new roles in which they can facilitate learning, they will be better prepared to accept new theory and new media of instruction.

"A third theme is the clear need for students to assume greater responsibility for their own education. Language laboratories, filmed courses, learning machines, and even televised courses demand that students be able to function without the close supervision of a teacher. This, of course, is not a new concern in collegiate education. However, it seems clear that if some of the newer devices are to be used on any large scale in colleges throughout the country, teachers must accept the fact that students should do independent work. Students therefore must be led to the same conclusion and must be motivated to assume this responsibility. This, of course, is no easy task. Indeed some leaders in higher education have stated that greater independent study is but an idle dream. Students, because of the kinds of homes from which they come and the kinds of schools they attend, have become conditioned to a teacher-dominated learning situation. The participants in this conference thought otherwise.

"A fourth theme which has to be faced is the great cost of using some of the newer electronic devices. The enormous expense to a college in setting up a closedcircuit television arrangement is relatively small as compared with the refinements such as video-tape equipment which are now available. When equipment is installed which can allow several colleges to cooperate, costs increase still more.

number of students educated in part by such means. Thus within a college large numbers of students must be enrolled in single courses simply to justify the expense of providing programs which fully tax television potential. Large courses, which meet at a single hour, play havoc with scheduling problems for the rest of the curriculum. This, however, can be solved if the values of television are accepted by a faculty. Colleges can also justify the expense of newer devices if the larger population of several different institutions can share in a particular learning program. For example, an hour length video tape costs $300.00. A single college budget cannot afford making many such tapes to preserve particularly effective teaching. However, if several colleges have agreed on a plan to pool their tapes, the cost does not loom as such a large consideration. One college cannot afford elaborate library equipment. If, however, a central repository is created which serves the research library needs of a number of schools, rather complicated storing and retrieving equipment may be justified. If a college can save faculty cost or construction cost through new media, it can afford much modern equipment.

"A fifth theme reaffirms the point that colleges must understand themselves and their own unique educational problems before they can reasonably expect help from technological experts. There are many devices which have relevance for education. The precise ones suitable for a particular college can be decided upon only after a college understands what it is hoping to accomplish. Not only must a college know the number of students and faculty it has with which to operate, it must also consider its subtle educational objectives. A college dealing with students most of whom work, which is trying to accomplish much of its impact in a classroom, has a different problem from a residential school in which a wide variety of out-of-class influences are brought to bear on students. A college offering language instruction chiefly to develop reading proficiency for graduate work might value a language laboratory less than a college seeking to give students simply a broad awareness of language as an aspect of foreign culture. The college must answer many questions for itself before it can hope to ask intelligent ones of those who design equipment.

"A sixth theme was almost by way of a warning. A sharp distinction must be made between the device itself and the content which is communicated through devices. It is useless to argue that motion pictures are or are not good educational devices. They are simply the means by which certain kinds of student behavior can be modified. The first question which must be answered involves substance. If it can be agreed that certain kinds of information should be communicated then the relevance of different kinds of equipment to communicate that information can be examined. Several times during the conference the analogy of a railroad system was used. The device is comparable to railroad tracks. The information is analogous to whatever travels down those tracks.

"A seventh theme which is much less clear involves the relationship between function and space. The participants were somewhat reluctant to endorse the notion that the way space is organized is completely a product of the function it is to serve. On the other hand space and function were not to be divorced. Very likely this correlation can best be guaranteed by emphasizing flexibility in planning. "An eighth theme is in a sense a tension between the reality principle in education and what might be called the aesthetic or nonutilitarian principle. With respect to the first it was seen desirable to arrange course materials and to teach them so that immediate application to the lives of students could be perceived. Thus courses in engineering would present processes which students would likely encounter

issues about which young adults should realistically be concerned. The other principle posited that there were some activities which were so valuable in themselves that although they might be inefficient they nonetheless should be encouraged. It might, for example, be most efficient to move to micro-film collections for libraries. However, to do so would deny students the aesthetic satisfaction of handling books and browsing. It might be most efficient to show an expert technician conducting a laboratory experiment. To do so might sacrifice the values of students fumbling with apparatus in conducting their own experiments. While the conference did not resolve the tension between these two principles, it did underscore its existence and the necessity for its resolution.

"A last theme which would be described simply emphasized again and again that there was no magic in education. There are many aids to learning and much which can be done to smooth the process. Learning, however, still consists of modifying human behavior which is always a long and laborious process. A tranquilizer can reduce student anxiety so that he can concentrate on his school work. It can't learn for him. A film can help students visualize how things are. It can't synthesize materials for him. Education has always been and will always be a difficult process." In some respects those statements could apply in 1965 as well as in 1959. However, innovation has proceeded further as specific needs for new methods and approaches have become manifest.

The intersection of the population born during the low-birthrate years of the 1930s as the pool of teachers and the needs of the World War II born population as the pool of students has created a strident necessity to extend the reach of a limited number of professors to larger and larger audiences. Closed circuit television at such institutions as Pennsylvania State University, Miami University, and the University of Houston has been used to offer full courses assigned full academic credit with no appreciable difference between student achievement in a televised course and those in more orthodox situations. The Chicago City Junior Colleges have offered credit courses to several thousand students over open circuit television -students whose sole contact with the campus proper was at registration and examination time, yet who out-achieved students who faced their teachers in person each day. In other institutions such as the College of Wooster, heavy emphasis has been placed on independent study, partly in the hope that a professor directing independent study could really reach more students on an intimate basis than he could in a formal classroom setting. At the University of South Florida major lectures are tape recorded and the tapes then played continuously in a vacant room so that all students may hear them at their leisure. To allow mathematics professors to spend more of their time with advanced courses, Michigan State University has assigned programmed textbooks for elementary courses and made students responsible for developing basic competencies with only the occasional aid of a graduate student. And Stephens College has brought distinguished lecturers for courses in both the sciences and humanities to as many as ten different college campuses at the same time, through an amplified telephone device arranged on a conference circuit.

While much learning has taken place through the traditional devices of books and abstract discussion, there has grown up the feeling that classroom experiences should be greatly enriched if even the optimum potentialities of a collegiate education were to be realized. Lecture halls have been wired so that the instructor can gain an immediate reaction of students recorded on a console located beside the instructor, and any student in a large lecture hall can gain the attention of the

lectures much more personal and relevant to student needs. Also intended to bring more life into lectures is the overhead projector such as is in use at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Not only may the instructor show previously prepared transparencies, but he may also write on the table lodged in the lectern materials which are then reflected on the overhead screen. Closed circuit television with industrial quality cameras have been used to allow a number of classes in educational psychology to view an elementary school classroom in operation. And the television has made instruction in operating room procedures to relatively large groups possible, sometimes with better results than came from direct observation of the surgeon in action. And the wide availability of low cost paperback books has come close to revolutionizing collegiate reading habits. The late David Boroff remarked that there was no single book attracting the attention of college students because paperback books made it possible for them to read so many.

In the past, collegiate life was inclined to be somewhat provincial, and college graduates were sometimes regarded as having been divorced from the real world. In order to extend student horizons and make them more aware of the relationship of their academic world to the worlds of work and of other cultures, colleges have experimented with a number of programs. In the 1930s Bennington College allowed for students to spend as much as a year away from campus on research, study or work, and Antioch College created its Cooperative Work Program which demanded that every student alternate periods of study with periods of work. Slightly later several eastern colleges sent students for a junior year abroad. Similar attempts at other campuses evolved slowly until the advent of the jet airplane which made rapid, relatively inexpensive transportation possible. During the past five years there has been almost a rank growth of programs designed to get students off the home campus for a period. These range in size from the Earlham College delegation working at the Hoover Library half a continent away to Stanford's attempt to send at least half of its undergraduate population on some kind of foreign experience. It was the University of Pittsburgh which first made higher education conscious that using a physical plant twelve months a year might be less costly than purchasing expensive urban land for the buildings needed if a more leisurely procedure were pursued. And it was the Western Conference and the University of California Study of Space Utilization which made higher education aware of how profligate it had been in maintaining unused space.

Since the middle of the 1950s colleges and universities have experimented with a variety of techniques to make higher education more efficient. Individual institutions have moved to the four quarter or trimester system and have encouraged students to finish their bachelors work in as few as two and two-thirds years. State systems such as that in Florida have placed all state universities on a year-round calendar. Colleges have conducted studies of space utilization with forms prepared for national use and have compared their results with normative standards accumulated through foundation supported studies. The College Entrance Examination Board, in response to a study made by several eastern preparatory schools and universities, has developed its Advanced Placement Program which allows a growing number of college freshmen to enter as sophomores.

The American society, speaking through the aspirations of parents and the pronouncements of its educators, has demanded that a larger proportion of its youth receive some form of post-high school education. The same society, speaking through its college students, has suggested that education, to be truly effective, must recognize the validity of small group experiences. And the society, sensing the