erty was secured by the action of public-spirited citizens, and loans were made by the State, secured by the assets of the schools. These loans were added to yearly by succeeding legislatures till strong and well-equipped schools arose. They sounded the death-knell of many private academies. The State also assisted in the school expenses of those who would engage to teach in the public schools. Thus State aided, the schools were able to reduce expenses, and were soon filled with young men and women, only a portion of whom had any intention of teaching. They afforded high school education of good quality to any who could afford to pay the expense, which amounted to but little more than the cost of board. The friends of the private schools, which were doomed to extinction, were opposed to them; so were many of the colleges, towards whom for a time they took an inimical position, but they grew and strengthened in public regard and became valuable agencies in education.

Two other educational factors of considerable potency started into existence about the same time. The first teachers' institute was held in Chester County in 1855, and the idea rapidly crystallized into a permanent institution. The gathering became the chief event of the year in the county town. Teachers of all grades came together, the public joined in the meetings, and were themselves educated to an interest in school matters.

Still more important was the establishment of the county superintendencies. These officials examined and gave certificates to teachers, and acted as the educational advisers and agents for their districts. Though without authority to select teachers, which was given to the local board, their influence was most stimulating and healthful. Few if any States have a better organized system than these additions gave to Pennsylvania. For much of its value and its development the credit is due to Thomas H. Burrowes and James P. Wickersham.

By 1850 the population of Philadelphia was about three hundred and sixty thousand, with nearly fifty thousand

more in the more sparsely inhabited district around, which constituted the county of Philadelphia. The "city," which was limited as in Penn's day by the Delaware and Schuylkill, Vine and South Streets, had its own government. Close around, and by this time practically a part of the real city, were separate corporations,-Southwark, the Northern Liberties, Moyamensing, Spring Garden, Kensington, North Penn, and Richmond, with West Philadelphia and Belmont soon to be added. Farther into the country were boroughs like Germantown and Manayunk, while the rest of the county was divided into thirteen townships.

This arrangement produced a complicated and inefficient government, and in 1850 the first step towards consolidation was taken, when the police forces of the city and of the various corporations were placed under one head. This was followed in 1854 by enlarging the city of Philadelphia so as to include all of the county and absorbing in one all the corporations, boroughs, and townships, with their assets and liabilities. The outlying organizations, in anticipation of an assumption of their debts, increased them some four millions of dollars within a month preceding the corporation, and started the enlarged city into existence with an obligation to its creditors of over seventeen million dollars.

This debt had largely been incurred by investments in railroads converging to the city, and was probably justified by the business rewards accruing. The coal and iron trade and the manufactories were placed in a prosperous and growing condition. Some of these factories were large establishments with a great output. But many were the creations of comparatively poor men who found independent employment in controlling the work of a single loom or lathe, and who thus became independent of employers, and in time often employers themselves. These little establishments, encouraged by cheap coal and materials, brought in a great immigration of skilled labor from Europe. The owner of his machinery would also desire a home, and more homes grew up in Philadelphia than in its larger neighbor

to the north.

This development went on with accelerated rapidity, when the well-conceived laws governing building societies were passed by the Legislature. Thus, in an unexpected manner the idea of Penn that his city should be a collection of separate homes was evolved.

In foreign commerce New York had long since passed her. The Erie canal and the better channel to the sea had diverted the Western trade to the wharves of the northern city, while in Philadelphia both imports and exports had diminished more than half since 1825.

CHAPTER XXII.

1860-1870.

Curtin's Election-Political Reaction-Mustering of Troops-Pennsylvania in the War-Invasions of Pennsylvania-Battle of Gettysburg-Soldiers' Orphans Schools-Decrease of Debt-State Politics.

By 1860 Pennsylvania was fully committed to the antislavery cause. The Republican candidate for governor, Andrew G. Curtin, was elected in October by a majority of thirty-two thousand, and this presaged the still larger victory of November, when Abraham Lincoln received ninety thousand more votes than John C. Breckenridge, and sixty thousand more than the combined opposition. Such figures were unusual in those days, and coming from a State so conservative and so consistently Democratic as Pennsylvania, indicated the strength of the sentiment outraged by the grasping demands and the threats of the South.

Scarcely had the vote been cast and the muttered menace of disunion come back from the slave-holding States, when Pennsylvania seemed alarmed at the stand she had taken, and a strong reaction swept over the State. While Governor Packer, in his retiring message, stated that secession was clearly erroneous, yet he urged the necessity of modifying the extreme antislavery laws of the statute-book. Up to 1847 owners accompanied by slaves might pass through the State, and for a time remain there without molestation, and he intimated that it would be a good thing to return to this condition. He declared that Pennsylvania had always been faithful to its constitutional obligations to other States relating to slavery, and reviewed conditions beginning as far back as 1705. Resolutions were introduced into the Legislature declaring the duty of the State to assist in every way in the restoration of fugitives. A mass meeting in Independence Square, held December 13, 1860, attended