tor Emanuel, that thus the unity of Italy might be consecrated in the royal person. The law, enacting this as the royal title, passed the Senate on the 26th February by a vote of 126 yeas to 2 nays, and the Chamber of Deputies, on the 11th of March, unanimously; and on that day the King assumed the title, which was recognized by England on the 80th of March, and subsequently by Switzerland, Greece, Denmark, Portugal, the United States, and, on the 10th of June, by France. Austria protested against it, but without effect.

The Roman question was, of course, the most absorbing one with the Italian parliament, and it was, as it still is, involved in great difficulties. It may be well, as it has not been fully understood in the United States, to give briefly its history.

Since 1848, the Roman Government has chiefly been maintained by the overawing force of Austrians in the Legations and the French army in the capital. The defeats of the Austrians by the French and Sardinians at Magenta and Melagnano, in the summer of 1859, were immediately followed by the evacuation of the States of the Church by the Austrian garrisons. Upon this, several of these States at once revolted from the Pope, and proclaimed Victor Emanuel king or dictator. Bologna was the first in this movement, proclaiming for the Sardinian king, on the 13th of June. Forli, Faenza, and Imola followed her example on the 15th; Rimini, Cesena, and Ravenna on the 17th; Perugia and its vicinity, on the 18th; and Fano, Urbino, Fossembrone, Sesi, and Ancona a few days later. Thus within a space of two weeks, one half of the Papal territory was lost. It was charged that this was done at the instigation and with the assistance of foreigners; but the error of this statement will be evident, if we call to mind the fact that even under the severe repressing influence of the Austrian garrisons, revolts against the Roman authority had often occurred, and the moment the pressure of these garrisons was removed, they returned to their former condition of disaffection and hostility to that Government.

On the 18th of June, the Pope issued an encyclical letter, in which he represented the nature and causes of the revolution; and on the 20th of June, he delivered an allocution, in which he threatened excommunication against all who, "by act or counsel or in any other way, have dared to violate, disturb, and usurp our and this Holy See's civil power and jurisdiction, and the patrimony of the blessed Peter; and called upon the sovereigns of Europe to use their united zeal and counsel for the preservation of his temporalities intact. The Roman Government also took prompt measures to reduce the revolted provinces to obedience. By the end of June its authority was restored, for the tinne, in every part of the Papal dominions, except the four Legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli, but at the cost of a terrible amount of violence and

bloodshed. The Government next attempted the subjugation of these Legations, but in vain. Massimo d'Azeglio, the commissary extraordinary, with two Piedmontese regiments and a large body of volunteers, had already arrived at Bologna, and was ready to meet the Roman troops. The Pope consulted the French ambassador as to the best means of subjugating these revolted provinces; the ambassador advised delay, and promised to demand from the court of Turin the withdrawal of the Piedmontese troops. The peace of Villafranca occurred soon after, and the Pope asked the French Government to restore his authority in the Romagna; the Emperor refused on the ground of quasi-engarements of France to Italy, and postponed the matter till the close of the conferences at Zurich. A few weeks later, the Pope addressed a letter to the Emperor, asking that the French should garrison the Marches of Ancona and other points then occupied by Roman troops, so as to leave them at liberty to recapture the Legations. To this request the Emperor gave a negative reply.

Thus repulsed, the Roman Government turned to Spain, and applied for a sufficient number of troops to put down the insurrection. The Spanish Government promptly responded by a resolution to put 20,000 troops at the disposal of the Pope. But here a new difficulty occurred; it was necessary to notify the French Government of their intention, and that Government at once responded that they would neither consent to nor permit the entrance of a Spanish army into the Roman States; that the intervention of Spain would only produce fresh complications in the affairs of Italy; and that France would consider such a movement on the part of Spain as a declaration of war. As nothing was further from the wishes of Spain than a war with France, this reply effectually crushed all hopes of aid from that quarter. A subsequent application to the King of Naples was frustrated in a similar way.

On the 29th of August, 1859, the French Minister at Rome, the Duke de Grammont, had an audience of the Pope, and stated to him the wishes of the Emperor in regard to the Legstions. He declared that the people had themselves cast off the Roman authority, which had indeed been exercised in such a way as to merit the disapproval of other nations; that he could not interfere consistently with his own position, to restore them to a Government which they hated, and advised him to consent to their separation, he having the right, for the first time only, to nominate the governor of the new republic. The Pope expressed the greatest surprise at these proposals, and indicated in the strong est terms, his determination never to reling any of the rights of the Holy See. In that case," replied the Duke de Grammont, "France will withdraw her troops from Rome." The Pope is said to have answered: "Your Gover ment, then, wishes to dethrone me. It krows that, with the revolutionary spirit which is

abroad in Italy, the withdrawal of its troops to-day will be the signal for the outbreak of the revolution to-morrow."

The first result of the refusal of the French Emperor to restore the Legations to the Pope, was the consummation of the revolution in these provinces. On the 6th of September, the national assembly of Bologna voted unanimously the cessation of the Roman authority, and the following day the same body decreed annexation to the constitutional kingdom of Victor Emanuel, and appointed a deputation to present their petition to that monarch. The interview for its presentation was held on the 24th of September, and the result, though favorable, was not decisive. Formal annnexation took place, however, as a result of popular suffrage in the Legations on the 11th of March, 1860. The vote for annexation was almost unanimous. In the interval between the presentation of their petition and this suffrage for annexation, a pamphlet, evidently inspired by the French Emperor, and entitled Le Pape et le Congrès, had appeared, (December 22, 1859,) which had dexterously combated the claims of the Pope to a temporal sovereignty, and declared its incompatibility with his spiritual domination. This pamphlet produced an extraordinary effect, rousing the ultramontane and clerical party in France and all over Europe to intense hostility to the Emperor, (see FRANCE,) and resulting in the abandonment of the proposed European Congress on Italian affairs, inasmuch as the Austrian Government required an engagement from the French Government neither to bring before the Congress the measures which the pamphlet advocated, nor to support them if brought forward by others-an engagement which the French Government would not consent to make.

Foiled in his attempts to enlist the aid of foreign powers in the subjugation of his former provinces, the Pope now appealed to the faithful throughout Europe to furnish him with the men and means for recovering his lost patrimony. M. De Lamoricière, a French general of high reputation, volunteered to take command of his troops. Large collections of Peter's pence were made throughout the Catholic world, and volunteers from Belgium, Austria, and Ireland joined the Roman army in considerable numbers. By the end of May, 1860, Lamoricière found himself at the head of 18,000 men, a force he believed fully equal to the reduction of the provinces which had annexed themselves to Sardinia. After spending the summer in disciplining his force, he took armed possession in September of the fortress of Ancona and other points in Umbria and the Marches of Ancona, to put down by force the tendencies to revolt which were daily becoming more evident there. Garibaldi was at this time engaged in the revolution of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and had entered Naples on the 8th of September. The people of Umbria and the Marches had appealed to the Sardinian Government for pro

tection against the army of Lamoricière, which, like the Swiss mercenaries, was guilty of great outrages. Count Cavour on the 8th or 9th of September, had despatched an ultimatum to the court of Rome, demanding the immediate disbandment of that army as an offence against the public conscience of Italy and Europe. This demand being refused, on the 11th of September, the Sardinian army under command of General Cialdini crossed the Roman frontiers, welcomed everywhere by the people. Perugia, Spoleto, Pesaro, Fano, and Sinigaglia surrendered in rapid succession, and by a forced march of 38 leagues in 24 hours, Cialdini succeeded in reaching the heights of Osimo and Castel Fidardo, and thus prevented the junction of Lamoricière with the other Roman troops. The latter was thus compelled to give battle; and though he had 10,000 men and Cialdini but 8,000, yet after a sharp fight of some hours, Lamoricière was completely routed, his army scattered, and he himself abandoned the field and fled with a few attendants to Ancona. Cialdini pursued the Roman forces to Loreto,, and captured the entire body. Ancona only now remained to the Pope of the whole provinces of Umbria and the Marches, and this Cialdini captured after a few days' siege. The result was a further accession, again by popular suffrage, to the Sardinian sway, of Umbria, with a population of 472,639; the Marches of Ancona, with 924,055 inhabitants; and Viterbo, with 129,372; leaving under the sway of the Pope only the comarca of Rome, Civita Vecchia, Velletri, and Frosinone, with an aggregate population of only 562,787 inhabitants. Though the number of his subjects were so greatly reduced, the Pope abated nothing of his demands.

In vain have the French Emperor and the King of Italy sought to pacify and arrange the complicated affairs of temporal Rome. To every proposition aimed at an adjustment of the existing difficulties, which looks to the restriction or abdication of his temporal sovereignty, the sole reply of the Pope is, "Non possumus," (we cannot.)

Con

In consequence of the encouragement of the insurrection in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies by the King of Sardinia, France and Russia withdrew their ambassadors from Turin; and the former power, by stationing its fleet in the harbor of Gaeta, prevented an attack upon that fortress, the stronghold of Francis II., by the Sardinian navy. vinced at last of the impossibility of the recovery of his ancient kingdom by that monarch, the French emperor withdrew his squadron early in February, and on the 14th of that month Gaeta surrendered, and the ex-king of Naples escaped on board a French war steamer to Rome, where he remained during the year, endeavoring, as opportunity offered, to raise insurrections, and encourage brigandage in his former dominions. Messina surrendered on the 13th of March, and Civitella on the 20th.

The reorganization of the newly-acquired

territory of the Italian king in such a way as to encourage and promote free institutions, commerce, agriculture, and education, which occupied the Italian parliament for some time, progressed favorably. The prime minister counselled patience and forbearance in relation to Rome, and curbed the fiery spirits, who proposed forcible measures; he also advocated delay and patience in regard to Austria, believing that her Hungarian troubles would enure to the benefit of Italy, and that Venetia might be gained without a war.

The following statement shows the debt of the new kingdom in 1861, and the different sources from which it has been accumulated; the new kingdom, of course, assumes the debts of its constituent States.

Debt of the Kingdom of Sardinia previous to 1848..

Debt of the Kingdom of Sardinia created

between 1848 and 1860...

Duchy of Parma.....

$27,000,000

2,211,236

204,994,119 2,111,643 Added under the administration of Farini.. 1,000,000 Duchy of Modena..... Added under the administration of Farini.. 1,000,000 Duchy of Tuscany.... 80,416,000 Added during the administration of Ricasoli. 11,384,000 States of the Church annexed to Sardinia.. 8,315,424 Administration of Marquis Pepoli...... 2,600,000 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies..... 110,000,000 Loan contracted by the New Kingdom....140,000,000

Total debt.......

.$536,032,422 Diplomatic relations were renewed between France and Italy in June, but accompanied by declarations on the part of the former power, of non-responsibility for, and non-approval of, certain measures of the latter. The position of the country at the close of the year in relation to the two great questions, the probable possession of Rome as its capital, and the future annexation of Venetia, was not entirely satisfactory.

The people of the late Neapolitan kingdom, so long oppressed, and kept in ignorance and degradation, by the grinding tyranny of the Bourbon kings, seem hardly fitted to appreciate the liberty they have gained; and disorders have been rife there through the year, fermented in part, doubtless, by the emissaries of Francis II., whose residence at Rome gives him ample opportunities for such intrigues, but partly also resulting from the license indulged in by a people unaccustomed to liberty. The suspense to which the nation has been subjected by the delay in the solution of the great questions so vital to its national unity and completeness, have exerted an unfavorable effect

JAPAN, an empire of Eastern Asia, called by the natives Niphon or Nipon, from the name of its largest island. The whole empire is insular, and comprises the islands of the great Archipelago, separated from the coast of China

upon it. Rome is its natural capital, and no jealousies would be raised against its selection, but that Naples, and Turin, Milan, Florence, and Genoa, are rival cities, and the residence of the court at either, excites the envy of the others. The condition of Venetia under the oppressive rule of Austria, excites the sympathy of the adjacent States for her, and their indignation against her oppressor; and that calmness and peace essential to a nation's prosperity can only be attained when the dreams of her great statesmen are realized, and the whole of Italy owns but the sway of a single ruler, and is united under a free and liberal Government, with its capital on the banks of the Tiber.

ITURBIDE, MADAME HUATE DE, ex-Empress of Mexico, and widow of the first and only em. peror of Mexico of European descent, Augustin de Iturbide, died in Philadelphia, March 21, 1861, at the age of about 70 years. Since the execution of her husband by the Mexican Government in 1824, she had resided with her family in Philadelphia, and was endeared to a considerable circle of friends by her amiable and excellent qualities. One or two of her sous have resided in Mexico of late years, and have held places under the Mexican Government, from which she received a pension. Augustin de Iturbide, one of the best men whom Merico has nurtured, was the leader of that country in throwing off the Spanish yoke, and a grateful people pressed upon him the imperial crown. He refused their importunities, till, by a vote of 77 to 15, the Congress forced it upon him, and on the 18th of May, 1822, he was crowned Emper or of Mexico, with the title of Augustin I. The machinations of Santa Anna, the evil genius of Mexico, soon detached the people from him and, on the 20th of March, 1823, after a tarbulent reign of less than a year, he abdicated, and permission was granted him to leave the country, with a pension of $25,000 per annum. He went to Italy, but returned the subceeding year to Mexico, where, meart me. without his knowledge, he had been proseri MAS as a traitor. Gen. Garza, then Governor of Tamaulipas, under the guise of friendship, be trayed him to the Congress of that State, by whom he was immediately arrested and, without trial, sentenced to death, and executed e the 19th of July, 1824, within a week from the time of his landing, and before an appesi could be made to the General Government of Mexico. He died like the hero and brave mat that he was, and in his death Mexico lost on of her best and purest patriots.

by the Sea of Japan. The number of islands a said to be about 1,000. The largest are: Xphon, 900 miles long, with an average breat of 100 miles, and having an area of nearly 100,000 square miles; Kiusiu, having an ara

of 16,000 square miles; and Sikokf about 10,000 square miles. Beside these, Yesso having an area of 3,000 square miles, was conquered and colonized by the Japanese, who also held until 1861 the southern part of Saghalien, and the Kurile Isles, as well as the important islands of Tsus-sima, in the straits of Corea. These last, together with Saghalien and one of the principal ports of Yesso, have come into the possession of Russia during the past year. The present area of the empire does not probably exceed 150,000 square miles. The number of inhabitants is uncertain, but judging by the density of the population of the islands visited by foreigners, cannot be less than 35,000,000 to 40,000,000. They are all of the Mongol race, but possess greater mental activity and capacity for the acquisition of knowledge than any other nations belonging to that race. In many respects they have attained to a high degree of civilization. Their attainments in the useful arts are extraordinary, surpassing in some particulars those of any of the nations of the West. Their manufactures of silk, lacquered ware, paper, iron, steel, and the precious metals are unrivalled. They imitate perfectly our manufactures, and Colt's revolvers, Sharpe's rifles, Yankee clocks, steam engines, Dahlgren guns, bomb-shells, &c. &c., are made as perfectly, and, owing to the low price of labor, at a much less cost at Nagasaki than in our workshops here. In literature and science, also, they have made great attainments. The prevalent religion of the country is Buddhism, though some others are tolerated. After the return of the Japanese ambassadors, who visited the United States in the summer of 1860, there were considerable disturbances in the country. The prime minister of the civil Emperor (for they have two emperors, a spiritual sovereign who presides over religious affairs, and a civil emperor who attends to secular matters) was assassinated, it was believed at the instigation of Prince Mito, one of the most powerful nobles of the empire, who was opposed to intercourse with foreign nations. A few months later, Prince Mito himself was assassinated. An attempt was made about the same time to assassinate several of the foreign ambassadors; the consul of the Netherlands was killed, and Mr. Olyphant, connected with the British legation, was wounded. The Japanese Government endeavored to discover and punish the assassins, and a number of them were put to death. It also promised a strong guard to protect them whenever they had occasion to go from their residences to other parts of the city or country. The British minister, Mr. Alcock, was nevertheless very much dissatisfied with the Japanese Government, and continually appealed to his Government to commence a war against them. The representative of the United States, Mr. Townsend Harris, on the contrary, as the result of a long acquaintance with the people, and a disposition to accord to them the same rights and privileges which he sought to obtain from them,

has uniformly defended their course towards foreign merchants, as in strict adherence to the terms of the treaties they have made with them, and in this position he has been sustained by the representatives of Holland and Prussia. Mr. Harris believed that the surest way of building up an important and mutually valuable commerce between the Japanese and our citizens, was to secure their confidence in our disposition to treat them honorably and fairly, and not in any case to take advantage of their ignorance of western customs, and the results are demonstrating the correctness of his views. During the year 1861, the Emperor of Japan sent ambassadors to France, and subsequently to England; in neither case, however, admitting in the delegation, as was done in the case of the ambassadors to this country, nobles of high rank. Treaties have been made during the past year by the Japanese Government with Russia, and with Prussia. A large number of costly and beautiful presents were sent to the Government of the United States, by the Tycoon or Japanese Emperor, in return for those sent by this Government to Japan, and the gifts of individuals were also honorably acknowledged by liberal presents. Mr. Harris, the able representative of the United States at the court of Japan for several years past, and the negotiator of the first commercial treaty of any value, in 1858, requested his recall in 1861, on account of ill health, and was replaced by Robert H. Pruyn, Esq., of Albany. The treaty made by Mr. Harris has been the model on which the treaties of the other nations have been based; and while in one or two instances reductions in the duties paid on goods imported from western nations have been made, as for instance by the English on cotton, woolen, and linen goods, the treaty contains a provision by which American exports will be admitted on the same terms with those of any other nation.

JEFFERSON, FORT. This fort, on one of the Dry Tortugas, covers the entire surface of Garden Key, and has an area of thirteen and a half acres. It is designed to mount 298 guns, when finished. About the 15th of January, eighty soldiers were first sent to the fort. There were at this time three hundred men on the island, who had been engaged in the advancement of the work. This fortification was subsequently well garrisoned by the United States, and its construction is still going forward, a number of United States Volunteers having been sent thither to work upon it, as a punishment for mutinous conduct. About January 20, while a United States steamer was landing troops and supplies, the steamer Galveston, of New Orleans, appeared in sight, with a Confederate force on board, for the purpose of taking the fort; but, upon discovering the steamer, and probably understanding the object of her visit, the Galveston did not approach, or make any demonstration other than to put about and disappear.

KANSAS, a central State of the American Union, bounded N. by Nebraska Territory; E. by Missouri; S. by the Indian Territory; W. by Colorado Territory. Population in 1860, 107,110. The Missouri River washes it on the N. E., and the Kansas and Osage tributaries of the Missouri, and the Arkansas and its affluents, drain it. It was admitted into the Union as a State in the congressional session of 1860-61.

Kansas has been, from its first organization as a territory, the scene of much suffering and distress; a border warfare ravaged it for nearly five years, and it had not emerged from the effects of the marauding forays, when, in the summer and autumn of 1860, it was visited by a terrible drought, which in the most populous districts completely cut off the crops. The famine which followed in the winter of 1860'61, was terrible. Thousands were reduced to the verge of starvation, and a considerable number actually perished. The liberality of the other States, and their large contributions of grain, clothing, &c., alleviated, to a considerable extent, the suffering. In the spring of 1861, at the first call for troops for the war, the citizens of Kansas, inured, by their bitter experiences in the past, to war, volunteered in large numbers, and the State, in proportion to its population, furnished more soldiers than any other State in the Union.

The condition of Missouri, on her eastern border, which the secessionists were struggling to carry out of the Union, necessarily excited much feeling among the citizens of Kansas, and the recollection of the wrongs and indignities which her people had suffered from the "border ruffians," as they were designated, most of whom were inhabitants of Missouri, stimulated some of those who had suffered most, to acts of revenge, and a guerilla warfare, known in that region as "jay-hawking," ensued through most of the border counties, in which armed bands of either party, Unionist or Secessionist, visited the town, plundered the stores, laid the prominent citizens adhering to the otlier under contribution, or took them prisoners, and sometimes threatened them with instant death. In the counties at some distance from the border these outrages were less frequent, though occasionally occurring. In the autumn of 1861, preparations were made for organizing an army corps, to go from Kansas through the Indian Territory and S. W. Arkansas towards New Orleans, and it was proposed to place it under the immediate command of Gen. James H. Lane, then Senator from Kansas, and to give subordinate command to Col. Jennison, a noted Union guerilla leader, and some others of the prominent actors in the previous struggles in the State. Owing to some difficulties in regard

to the chief command, arising from misapprehensions between Gen. Lane and Gen. David Hunter, the former relinquished his leadership in the present year and returned to the Senate, and the expedition was finally abandoned.

KENT, VICTORIA MARIA LOUISA, DUCHESS OF the mother of the present queen of Great Brit ain, born in Saxe-Coburg, Aug. 17, 1786, died at her palace of Frogmore, near Windsor, England, March 16, 1861. She was the daughter of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and sister of Leopold, the present king of Belgium. She married at an early age Emil, Prince of Leiningen, by whom she had one son, Prince Karl, who afterwards became an eminent officer in the Bavarian army, and died in Nov. 1856. The Prince of Leiningen died in 1814, and after four years of widowhood, the princess married May 29th, 1818, Edward, Duke of Kent, 4th son of George III., and on the 11th July the same year the ceremony of marriage was again performed in England, and according to the rites of the English Church. In Jan. 1820, the Duke of Kent died, leaving the duchess again a widow with one child, the Princess Victoria, who, by the death of the Princess Charlotte Augusta, daughter of George IV., and the want of issue on the part of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., became heir presumptive to the English throne.

Looking forward to this as her probable destiny, the Duchess of Kent spared no pains to qualify her daughter to fulfil the high duties of that station well. Her education, physical, moral, and intellectual, was entirely conducted under her own supervision, and the carefulness of her training has been manifest in the admirable manner in which the present queen has acquitted herself as daughter, wife, and mother. At the time of her marriage with the Duke of Kent, that nobleman, exalted as was his station, was in very straitened circumstances, and the early years of the present queen were passed in comparative poverty. After her daughter's accession to the throne, she did not intermeddle at all with public affairs, but confined herself to the exercise of a maternal watchfulness over her welfare and that of her family, and to the dispensation of charities to the poor and unfortunate, which was the delight of her life. The funeral services were imposing, as the relations of the deceased duchess to the sovereign demanded. The body lay in state for ten days, and on the 26th was removed to Windsor, where the funeral ceremonies were performed in the Chapel Royal, and the body was temporarily deposited in the royal vault, till the completion of a mausoleum at Frogmore. Most of the courts of Europe, with number of which the deceased was connected, went into mourning for her death.