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salt. Thus water containing one one-thousandth part of its weight of chloride of strontium gives very distinctly the orange and blue rays characteristic of strontium. With concentrated solutions the effects are more marked, and with the chlorides in particular they are very brilliant. Thus the chlorides of strontium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, copper, and zinc, give fine effects. But other substances, such as various compounds of barium, potassium, antimony, iron, manganese, silver, uranium, etc., give effects which are more or less marked. In general the lines are more numerous than in the spectra of flames containing the same saline elements, which doubtless arises from the higher temperature, but in all cases the lines are the same as those given by Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Thus with a saturated solution of chloride of strontium, besides the orange and the clear blue, we see two violet rays, one more intense than the other, several green rays, one of which is particularly distinct, and a certain number of feebler rays in different parts of the spectrum. Chloride of lithium, besides the red and the feeble orange, gives a very vivid blue ray. A concentrated solution of chloride of calcium gives a great number of rays, among which the dark-blue ray is very intense. Chloride of magnesium, besides other lines, gives two very bright-green and one clear - blue ray. Chloride of zinc gives a red ray, three brilliant blue rays, and a very intense violet line. Nitrate of silver gives, among other rays, two of a vivid green. In conclusion, the author points out the very obvious and marked advantages which this method of observation offers in certain cases over the usual method of ignition in a non-luminous flame.

The Electric Spark in a Vacuum.-MM. Alvergniat, Frères, have invented an apparatus to demonstrate that the electric spark cannot pass through a perfect vacuum. They create a nearly absolute vacuum, by means of a mercurial pneumatic machine, in the tube that serves for the experiment. This contains two platinum wires, placed at a distance of two millimetres from each other. The tube is heated to dull redness, and, when that point is attained, the process of making the vacuum is still continued, and the electric spark passed until it ceases to be transmitted through the interior of the tube The tube is then hermetically sealed and separated from the machine. In a tube thus prepared, notwithstanding the slight distance between the two platinum points (two millimetres), electricity absolutely ceases to pass.

Magnetism and Molecular Changes. Experiments made by M. Trèves, a French naval officer, prove that a steel bar, magnetized by an electric current, undergoes some molecular change while magnetized. Two exactly identical steel diapasons, giving sounds precisely in unison, were selected. A small mirror was so placed in relation to each, that, when vibrations were struck upon either diapason, a figure of the vibrations was reflected into the. mirror

the figures from the two diapasons being precisely similar, in consequence of the metals being in unison. Round one diapason was then placed a powerful bobbin of wire, actuated at will by a current from eight Bunsen's elements. The other diapason was left unchanged. Immediately on passing the current through the bobbin, exciting the diapason, and rendering it magnetic, the following changes were noticed in the figure reflected from it in the mirror: The luminous circle that had previously been constant was observed to alter immediately from itself into an ellipse, and oscillate from right to left with a speed that enabled the new vibratory movement to be measured. This speed was faster or slower in proportion to the increase or diminution of the number of elements used. Whenever the current was shut off, the normal state of the diapason returned, and the fixed luminous circle, due to its natural condition when vibrating, reappeared. M. Trèves conducted similar experiments upon diapasons of soft iron, and of steel of various sizes, arriving at the similar results. M. Faye, in a note to the French Academy, accompanying a report of the facts, says that the new experimental method of M. Trèves has made a marked step in the science of magnetism.

The Aurora Borealis as a Weather Prognostic.-Mr. Murray Gladstone, of England, has for many years studied the aurora borealis as a weather prognostic. He has observed that, when the coruscations are vivid, and particularly if they extend toward the zenith, or show much motion, they are almost invariably followed by a gale of wind with rain from S. W., within from forty-eight hours to four days. The more brilliant and lively the appearance and motion of the aurora, the earlier the gale which follows takes place, and the greater is its severity. Slighter manifestations of the northern lights are not followed by any appreciable changes of weather. In explanation of the connection between the two sets of phenomena, Mr. Gladstone suggests that when a larger body than usual of light air from the south begins to descend upon the cold stream of air coming from the north, as those opposite currents in the atmosphere come into close proximity, their negative and positive electricities produce coruscations. The rarity of the atmosphere and the great elevation probably prevent (at least for the most part) any sound or thunder being heard; and the former cause, joined with the manner in which the currents approach each other, may probably occasion the shooting, flickering movements of the aurora. The arches of boreal light frequently seen stretching from E. to W. may be produced by large masses of air charged with opposite electricities meeting each other and feeding the flames quietly and continuously, on an extended front; while the movements of light occasionally occurring throughout the length of these arches may arise from the masses of vapor coming more actively into

contact at particular points, and lighting up a coruscation which, like a running fire, passes along the whole line. When the coruscations are more than usually vivid or violent in their motion, it would indicate a larger arrival than usual of negatively electric air from S. or S.W., which, in a shorter or longer time, according to its strength, first checks, and then overpowers the N. or N. E. wind, generally blowing when the aurora is seen. The lower temperature of the atmosphere, cooled down by the recent northerly wind, condenses the moisture borne from the warm south, and precipitates it in showers.

Effects of Lightning. - General Morin has communicated to the French Academy an illustration of the heating effect of a flash of lightning, which penetrated a piece of furniture where was placed a silk purse containing gold and silver pieces. The gold pieces were not fused, but slightly soldered together, without apparent alteration. The silver coins were completely defaced and strongly soldered together. A more remarkable story was narrated to the Academy by M. Bobierre. It seems that at Nantes last July a violent storm occurred, and a man on the bridge of the Canal de Bretagne found himself, as he says, "enveloped in a brilliant light." Looking at the contents of his pocket-book some time after, he discovered that the silver pieces had a dull, partlyfused look; and on examining a gold piece in another part of the pocket-book, separated from the silver by a partition of leather, he observed the gold piece uniformly covered by a thin layer of silver, having the appearance (under a microscope) of a multitude of globules in contact with each other. A portion of this coating of silver having been removed by weak nitric acid, the gold below was found in the same condition as the deposited silver, exhibiting a slight appearance of fusion. M. Bobierre explained the phenomenon on the theory that the electric shock, to which the man was subjected when "enveloped in a brilliant light," volatilized a portion of the silver, and that the metallic vapor passed through the leather, and coated the gold piece.

ELLIOTSON, JOHN, M. D., an English physician and medical professor and author, born in London in 1788; died in that city, July 29, 1868. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, and pursued his medical studies at Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital, and afterward at Edinburgh, where he took his medical degree, but subsequently became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London. He was appointed physician of St. Thomas's Hospital, and assisted greatly in the establishment of a separate medical school there, in which he became a lecturer on state medicine, and afterward on the principles and practice of medicine. He distinguished himself also by the reform of several administrative abuses in the hospital, as well as by the adoption of some new prescriptions, among them those of hy

drocyanic acid in affections of the stomach, of sulphate of copper, and of creosote. These, with his discoveries in the use of the stethoscope, roused the opposition of his professional brethren and brought a great deal of ridicule upon him, without, however, affecting his reputation, which was greatly increased by a course of clinical lectures which he delivered in London about that time. In 1831 he accepted a professor's chair in the University College, and the course of lectures he delivered immediately after was published at length in The Lancet and The Medical Gazette. In 1837 he turned his attention to the subject of animal magnetism, and, having made a variety of experiments which satisfied him of its remedial efficacy, he applied this mysterious agent to the treatment of certain affections which were up to that time considered incurable. His experiments excited public curiosity to the highest pitch; but his new doctrine as to the curative powers of magnetism, while it made many converts, raised up a host of adversaries against him, and he was ultimately compelled to resign the professor's chair which he held. He was subsequently instrumental in establishing a hospital for the treatment of patients on mesmeric principles, became the founder of the Phrenological Society, of which he was elected president, and started, under the title of The Zoist, a journal devoted to mesmerism and phrenology. Dr. Elliotson's best titles to fame are a remarkable work on sulphate of quinine; his employment of creosote in excessive irritability of the stomach; his essay "on the Advantages of Sulphate of Copper in Dysentery;" his discovery of the admirable curative properties and diuretic qualities of potash; his "Lectures on the Principles and Practice of Medicine;" his translation of Blumenbach's Institutiones Physiologica, which passed through many editions, and to which he had added more matter in the way of notes than the original work contained; and his experiments in the use of the stethoscope. Among his later works is one on "Surgical Cases in Mesmerism," etc.

ELLIOTT, CHARLES LORING, one of the most distinguished of American portrait-painters, born in Scipio, N. Y., in December, 1812; died in Albany, N. Y., August 25, 1868. His boyhood was passed in Syracuse, where his father was a builder. His father at first obtained a situation for him in a store, but, finding that he had no taste for mercantile pursuits, he determined to make an architect of him; but the boy's instincts for painting were too strong to be resisted. His friend F. S. Cozzens says that "while a mere boy he narrowly escaped suffocation from locking himself up into his bedroom, in order to paint 'The Burning of Moscow,' during the winter, with no companion but a portable furnace of burning charcoal to keep himself warm. In after-days, at the early age of fourteen, he made a copy of the portrait of a clergyman, which he painted with

three colors only-black, white, and rose pink. This portrait is in the possession of his family, and shows that even at an early age the artist had acquired a delicate sense of art in the arrangement of the drapery, the tenderness of the expression of the mouth, the modelling, and the freedom of touch in the painting of the hair, some of which characteristics are apparent in his latest pictures." Finding that his passion for art was so strong, his father wisely allowed him to pursue the necessary studies to become a painter. Having learned what he could of his art, and become a very fair portrait-painter in Syracuse, he came to New York in 1833, or the beginning of 1834, and became a pupil of Trumbull, and subsequently of Quidor, a fancy painter of some note. While here, he painted portraits of Captain and Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt, for which he received the modest sum of fifty dollars each. He also painted in oils some scenes from Irving's and Paulding's works, which were thought very creditable for so young an artist. After a residence of little more than a year in New York City, he returned to Western New York and practised his profession, confining himself particularly to portrait-painting, for about ten years. He returned to New York City in 1845, and in 1846 became a member of the National Academy of Design. From that time he had been a resident of New York or its immediate neighborhood, though occasionally absent for several months at Albany or Washington. He had painted a large number of portraits, and all were remarkable for the fidelity of their likeness, the vigor and perfection of their coloring, and for presenting the sitter in his most characteristic and effective expression. In private life he was one of the most genial and social of men.

reelected the three following years. He twice declined, during the period of his service as Governor, an election to the United States Senate-from an unwillingness to be further drawn away from his cherished profession. In 1847 he was elected by the Legislature a judge of the Superior Court, and of the Supreme Court of Errors, and remained on the bench as one of the associate judges of the Supreme Court, until he reached the age of seventy, when his term expired by limitation of law. He then retired to private life, carrying with him, however, the unabated interest in public affairs, and in religious and charitable enterprises, which made his life so honored and useful to the last. Since 1827 he had held the appointment of Professor of Law in Trinity College. He received the degree of LL. D. from the University of New York in 1838.

ENGLE, Rear-Admiral FREDERICK, U. S. N., a distinguished officer of the Navy, born in Delaware County, Pa., in 1799; died in Philadelphia, February 12, 1868. He entered the service November 30, 1814, and had consequently been a naval officer for more than fifty-three years, of which almost twenty had been passed afloat. At the beginning of the Mexican War he had risen to the rank of captain, and commanded the Princeton, winning distinction by his services in the blockading squadron. When treason threatened the capture of the United States Navy, Captain Engle, as an officer worthy of confidence, was sent to China to assume command of the Hartford, and brought that powerful ship home to aid in overcoming the South. His advanced age disabled him; he was therefore assigned to the command of the NavyYard at Philadelphia, and subsequently became Governor of the Naval Asylum in that city. He was promoted to be rear admiral on the retired list, July 25, 1866. Finally, after a long life of honorable service to his country, he resigned his office, and remained thenceforward waiting orders, until his death.

EUROPE. The aspect of Europe during the year 1868 was, on the whole, of a pacific character. The great powers seemed desirous to preserve peace, and none of the important international questions-the German, the Roman, and the Eastern-brought on a war.

ELLSWORTH, WILLIAM WOLCOTT, LL. D., an eminent Connecticut jurist, born in Windsor, Conn., November 10, 1791; died at Hartford, Conn., January 15, 1868, He was the third son of Oliver Ellsworth, second Chief Justice of the United States, and a twin brother of the late Henry L. Ellsworth, long Commissioner of Patents at Washington, D. C. He graduated from Yale College in the class of 1810, and at once commenced his legal studies under Judges Reeve and Gould in the Law School at Litchfield, and afterward continued There was, however, one serious breach of them in Hartford, in the office of his brother- the universal peace-the revolution in Spain. in-law, the late Chief-Justice Williams. He Being unconnected with any of the great inwas admitted to the bar in 1813, and was en- ternational complications which have agitated gaged in the successful practice of his profes- Europe for years, its effects did not extend besion until 1829, when he was elected to Con- yond the change of the form of government gress and twice reëlected at the expiration of in Spain. It occupies a remarkable place in his term. He resigned, however, at the close the history of European revolutions for the of the first session of the Twenty-third Con- rapidity with which it spread, and the univergress, to return to his profession. He was a sal support it met with. Within a few weeks member of the Judiciary Committee during the after the raising of the first insurrectionary whole of this period, and a member of the cry, in September, it overthrew the throne of committee appointed to investigate the affairs Queen Isabella. For the remainder of the of the United States Bank at Philadelphia. In year Spain was administered by a Provisional 1838 he was chosen Governor of the State, and Government, which represented three parties,

the "Liberal Union," the "Progresistas," and the "Democrats." The determination of the future government of Spain was referred to the Constituent Cortes, to be elected by universal suffrage, in January, 1869. Hardly any opposition was made to the Provisional Government by the few partisans of the ex-Queen, or the Absolutists (partisans of the family of Don Carlos); but serious dissensions arose in the last weeks of the year between the Republican party and the Provisional Government. The latter, instead of awaiting the decision of the Constituent Cortes on the form of government, used their whole influence in behalf of the reestablishment of a monarchy. This led to bloody conflicts in Cadiz and Malaga, and threatened more disturbances during the coming year. The strength of the Republican party was a surprise to the entire world, and even appeared to be greater than in any other monarchical country of Europe. (See SPAIN.) Soon after the beginning of the Spanish revolution, insurrectionary movements broke out in Cuba. Being at first somewhat undefined, and directed partly against the reëstablishment of a monarchical government in the Spanish dominions, and partly for severing the connection of Cuba with Spain, they soon became entirely a war of independence. The great majority of the population in Cuba showed itself in sympathy with the insurrection, and at the close of the year still held out against the Spanish forces. (See SPAIN.)

England, at the beginning of the year, found herself at war with Abyssinia. The landing of the troops had begun in October, 1867, but a real advance did not take place until January, 1868. Hardly any resistance was offered by King Theodore until the arrival of the English, in April, 1868, before his stronghold, Magdala, where he made a desperate fight, and, after the capture of the fort, fell by his own hand. The English troops at once evacuated the country. (See ABYSSINIA.)

Russia is steadily advancing in Central Asia, and, during the past year, conquered the whole country of the Emir of Bokhara. The Russian Government disclaims any intention of annexing, for the present, additional territory; but, at all events, she is steadily increasing her power and influence in Asia. Russian writers claim that Russia is, and England and France are not, Asiatic powers, and that the time will come when European powers like England and France will receive notice to quit Asia. (See RUSSIA.)

The insurgents in Candia continued throughout the year to defy the authority of the Turkish Government, being encouraged by the frequent arrival of men and ammunition from Greece, and by the sympathy of Russia and the United States. In December, the Turkish Government presented to that of Greece an ultimatum, demanding a pledge that no further aid should be given to Candia. The ultimatum was rejected by the Greek Government, the

Turkish ambassador left Athens, and the Greek ambassador Constantinople, and the relations between the two countries became so unfriendly that, for some days, a war was regarded as inevitable. But the great powers of Europe promptly interfered, and agreed upon a European Conference, to be held in Paris in January. (See CANDIA, GREECE, TURKEY.)

No agitation at all was caused during the year by the question of the annexation of Rome to Italy, or by the efforts made in Germany for the consummation of German unity. The Roman question again formed the subject of a diplomatic correspondence between the Governments of Italy and France; but the Italian party of action took no steps toward another expedition against the temporal power, and the Italian Government put off to the future all its hopes for consummating the unity of the kingdom. Prussia expressly vindicated her right to comply with the application of any of the South-German States for admission into the North-German Confederation; and the Government and people of Baden expressed a great desire to enter the Confederation at once, but practically no step was taken in advance, and, this being so, France appeared very anxious to avoid any quarrel with Prussia. (See FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY.)

The party of progress in Europe, which aims at narrowing the prerogatives of royalty and of aristocracy, and of reconstructing the states on the principles of popular sovereignty and universal suffrage, gained several important victories during the past year. In Spain the Provisional Government ordered the municipal elections and the election for the Constituent Cortes to take place, on the basis of universal suffrage; and as three of the political parties-the Republicans, the monarchical Democrats, and the Progressists-are in favor of universal suffrage, it was expected that, whatever form of government may be decided upon by the Constituent Cortes, universal suffrage will be engrafted upon the new Spanish Constitution. Next in importance was the great victory of the Liberal party in England. They had, in 1867, compelled the Tories to consent to a considerable enlargement of the law of suffrage. This year the majority of the House of Commons, under the leadership of Mr. Gladstone, passed resolutions in favor of disestablishing the State Church of Ireland, and when thereupon Parliament was dissolved and an appeal made to the people, the new election largely increased the Liberal majority in the House of Commons, and led to the formation of a Liberal Cabinet, under the leadership of Mr. Gladstone. The Liberal ministry in Austria, which was appointed in December, 1867, maintained itself, notwithstanding all the violent attacks upon it on the part of the priesthood. The Concordat of 1855 was abolished, and the principles of religious and civil liberty struck deep root throughout the land.

In France the Liberal party remained de

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