The difference betwixt fciences and arts is, that the former confists in a readiness to perceive and illustrate certain truths; the latter, in a facility of performing any thing ac-, cording to certain rules. The one employs only the intellect the other, though not exclufively of the mind, depends chiefly on manual skill. The rules in fome arts are very fimple, fo as to be learned by mere practice; in others they are more complex, and deduced from the liberal, or even from fome parts of the higher fciences. The former are called common, or mechanical arts, and include all kinds of handicrafts; the latter are ftiled the fine arts, of which the principal are painting, fculpture, engraving, and architecture.

The improvement and increase of fciences are owing to nothing more than to Academies and Scientifical Societies. The difcovery of new truths being their profeffed ftudy, the members of them fhould be perfons of eminent talents. Academies and focieties are ufually divided into three claffes, the mathematical, the phyfiological, and the philological; each with their particuler director, and a prefident over all. In imitation of the Scientifical Academies and Societies, have likewife been inftituted Academies of the Fine Arts, as painting, fculpture, and architecture, which by thefe inftitutions have been brought to perfection. With the fame view of promoting the arts in general, great applaufe is due to the Royal Schools as they are called; where youth, befides what is taught in common feminaries, are inftructed in the fundamentals of the fine and mechanical arts.

In the progrefs of the fciences and of literature, Printing has been a main inftrument; manufcripts, or written books, having been formerly fo dear, that none but the rich could purchase them. This fcarcity has been removed by the ineftimable invention of the typographical art, which the Dutch ascribe to their countryman Laurence Cofter, of Haarlem † ; but it is now fufficiently proved, that John Guttenberg, of

It is related of the famous Anthony Beccatelli, commonly called Panormita, that he fold a parcel of land to purs chase a copy of Livy. In the eleventh century, Gracia, countess of Anjou, gave for a collection of homilies, 200 fheep, a measure of wheat, a like quantity of rye, and a like quantity of millet, together with a number of marten fkins. Henault Abregé Chronologique, or Abridgement of the Hiftory of France, Tom. I. p, 154.

+ See General History of the United Netherlands, Vol. II. p. 112, 113.

G 2

Straf

Strasburg, found out the real printing of books; that is, the art of printing with fingle moveable types *.

From printing fprung Bookfelling, which is of such vaft benefit to the republic of letters; the writings of the learned being now easily conveyed from one country to another.'

In a country like England our author's reprefentation of jurifprudence and legiflation can be of little ufe. What he fays concerning the marine of this kingdom is taken chiefly from Burchett's and Leidard's Naval Hiftories: in treating of the expences of fitting out fhips of war, but little dependence can be had, at this time, upon calculations that were made above forty years ago. In fhort, the conftitution of England in matters of war, commerce, and taxation, forms a fyftem of its own, which has but little connection with that of foreign countries, as described by this author. All he fays, however, on those heads are well worthy the attention of an English reader.-Mr. Totze next treats of money and coins, which, he fays, have an intrinfic and extrinfic value; the former depending upon the fineness and weight of the metal, the latter upon the ordinances of the government which may likewife alter it. The proportion, fays he, appointed by the laws between the intrinfic and extrinfic value of coins, is termed the standard. The nearer the intrinfic and extrinfic value, the better are the coins; and, of course, the worfe where the difference is greater.' This is a tender confideration, and, we think, not very accurately expreffed, when applied to a trading country, where the intrinfic value of the coin is the ftandard. In abfolute governments, it is true, the extrinfic value of the coin may be fo much difproportioned to the intrinfic that it may have no currency but within that ftate, and even there with great difficulty. Nay in the courfe of this century, paper was made a legal tender in France, witness the cafe of the Miffifippi; but those were defperate remedies; and Mr. Locke never gave a greater proof of his abilities than by demonstrating, when the filver money was re-coined under king William, that the intrinfic and extrinfic value of the currency ought to be, as nearly as poffible, the

John Guttenburg was born at Mentz, of a noble family, and lived at Strafburg from 1430 to 1445. He afterwards went into partnership with Fauftus of Mentz; but a dispute between them producing a law-fuit, he was caft, and thereby loft his printing houfe. Fauftus then entered into connec tions with Peter Schoiffer, who, between 1450 and 1455, invented the caft types. All this has been fufficiently proved by counsellor Schopflin, in his Vindicia Typographicæ. tor. 1760. 4. See Leipfic Gazette, No 18. 1760.

Argen

fame.

fame. This doctrine had, indeed, its inconveniencies when bullion became dearer than coin; but the error, if any, was on the fafe fide, and for the credit of the kingdom.

This writer treats next of the revenues of a state. Thefe,. he fays, arise first from the demefnes which are unalienable, because affigned for the fupport of the fovereign; fecondly, from the regalia, which he fuppofes to be feas, lakes, rivers, highways, forefts, wild-beafts, falts, and coinage; thirdly, upon fome uncertain and cafual incomes, as fines, confifcations, inheritances of aliens or those who have no heirs, treafures found, and things for fale; but the greatest revenue arifing to the ftate is from taxes, rates, and duties. If all thofe are infufficient, then thofe taxes may be augmented or others impofed, fuch as the twentieth or fifteenth penny, three years loans, &c. not to mention in urgent exigencies, lotteries and annuities, which experienced financiers have recourse to. But, fays he, to have always a large fund of ready money at hand, is infinitely the best and most effectual expedient.'

The means of encreasing a state's revenue are agriculture, manufactures, trade, foreign and domeftic, exchange, banks, trading companies, mares and dividends, all which our author defcribes pretty much as they are underfood in England. The fame may be faid, making a few allowances, for his obferva tions upon foreign affairs, governmental, and provincial adminiftrations, and all the other executive departments of a community. We are next led into a defcription of an unlimited and limited monarchy, an ariftocracy, a democracy, and the other modes of government, all which are very clearly and properly defined by our author.

The following divifion treats of Europe in general. Mr. Totze first defcribes it geographically; and in fpeaking of rivers and waters, he obferves that the great foreign trade carried on by means of these waters, has occafioned moft of the European ftates to become maritime powers.'-The author then gives us a very thort and perfpicuous abridgment of the chief revolutions in Europe, fince the reign of Charles the Great, in the year 800, and concludes it in the following

manner.

A new war in the mean time breaking out between Great Britain and France, about the limits of their American countries, the former entered into an alliance with Pruffia, and the latter with Austria. To this laft alliance acceded Ruffia, Sweden, and the greater part of the German empire; and at length it came to be farther ftrengthened by Spain; fo that the parties feemed very unequal, and the former by much the weakeft; yet at the

upshot it proved the ftrongeft. In this war, which was carried on with more animofity and more armies than were ever known in Europe, Great Britain exerted itfelf to that degree, and with fuch fortunate confequences, that the united French and Spaniards were obliged to accept of fuch articles as this power prefcribed to them. Thus a comparison of former and prefent events fhews, that as Spain was the first European power in the fixteenth century, and France in the feventeenth, Great Britain may be deemed fuch in the prefent century; fo uncertain and mutable is the grandeur of ftates.

-Sic robora yerti

Cernimus, atque illas affumere pondera gentes,
Concidere has.'

The characters of the Europeans and their languages now come under our confideration. Mr. Totze tells us, that the French is used in several courts of Germany, and all over the north; that the Italian may be called the fpeech of European mufic; and that the Sclavonian language is the mother tongue of the Ruffian, Bohemian, and Moravian, and ufed with different dialects in Hungary, Stiria, the Ukraine, and Lufatia. In fhort, according to fome, it is spoken by fixty different nations. Mr. Totze's computation of European population, we think, admits of great difficulties, which, however, are not owing to him, but to a predominant humour in calculators to diminish population in every country. Europe, fays our author, confidering its extent, might contain near five hun dred and fifty millions of inhabitants, yet the higheft computation makes them only a hundred and fifty millions. This number, continues he, is hindred from encreasing, as under certain circumstances it probably would, firft, by the many wars in which the greater part of Europe is frequently involved; fecondly, by the numerous armies kept on foot even in the times of peace, and of whom the greatest part die unmarried; the various and extenfive fettlements of the Europeans in the other parts of the world, and to which great numbers remove every year to make their fortunes; and lastly, the feafervice, and naval trade, in which many meet with an untimely death.'

That the above caufes may diminish the European population cannot be doubted; but the diminution never can be as five hundred and fifty millions to one hundred and fifty millions. It is true Europe is frequently involved in wars, and fome fettlements abroad require fupplies of men; but we are to confider, that many of its kingdoms and ftates have no concern in those wars, and yet we find no fenfible encrease of their

po

population. Many of them have no foreign fettlements, no fea-fervice, and no naval trade, and yet their numbers have been pretty much the fame for ages paft. We are likewise to remark, that tho' the original fettlements of colonies abroad occafion at first a drain of population, yet a few centuries, as in the cafe of Great Britain, more than repay it. We are therefore inclined to think that population in Europe encreafes or diminishes according to the plenty or fcarcity of the means of fubfiftence in each country, with a few exceptions.

Mr. Totze has given us three different calculations of European population, all which, we think, are very fallible. That of baron Bielfield makes it about 150 millions, that of Mr. Bufching amounts to 142 millions, one tenth, and that of Mr. Sufmilch to 130 millions. In the first and last of those calculations Great Britain is rated at eight millions, and in the fecond Great Britain and Ireland at the fame number, which we are perfuaded is an undervaluation.

The difference of ranks of inhabitants in European states comes next under our author's cognizance, and then the particular forms of their governments. The most antient European nations, fays he, accounted liberty the fupreme good: it was the foul of their political conftitution; and, according to a great philofopher, it was by this attachment to liberty, that they diftinguifhed themfelves from the Afiatics, who were always flaves to their rulers. In the monarchies erected after the downfall of the Roman empire, liberty was connected with fovereignty, the nobility being a check against the exceffes of prerogative. They were originally the only state of the realm; but the clergy growing rich and powerful, gained admittance into the public confultations; and in procefs of time the more wealthy cities and towns came to make a branch of the legiflature. This compound of monarchy, ariftocracy, and democracy, was in the middle ages almost the univerfal form of government in Europe. But in the fixteenth and feventeenth centuries it became, in moft ftates, purely monarchial; the fovereigns finding means gradually to exclude the ftates from the government, and get all the power into their own hands. Accordingly, there are now in Europe the following unlimited monarchies: 1. Portugal. 2. Spain. 3. France. 4. Denmark. 5. Ruffia. 6. Pruffia. 7. Sardinia. 8. The Two Sicilies. 9. The Pope is likewife unlimited in the Ecclefiaftical State. 10. And the Grand Mafter of the order of St. John within the Isle of Malta. But the only defpotic state in Europe is Turkey.

The European mixed ftates are, 1. Germany. 2. Great Britain. 3. Sweden. 4. Poland: and 5. Hungary; yet with