a general organic attitude and not a specialized function like cognizing. We might then speak of the phagocytes as attending to bacteria without our falling into grotesque panpsychism or idealism.

Pitkin further supposes that what a man does is not determined primarily by something which philosophers call vital force, psychoid, or ego, but that behaviors and attitudes may be assumed by the blood, or by some group of cortical cells. Now, if the realistic biologist has escaped idealism by this supposition, has he not fallen into materialism? He admits his wish to escape the suspicion of subjectivism, but has he not committed the equal crime of rank objectivism-reduced the psychic to the merely physical? The question is hypothetical and so is the answer. If we agree to define the physical world as the spatio-temporal system exclusively, then consciousness is not physical, for the projection field, or the field of consciousness, is, in the strict logical sense of the adjective, transverse to the objects projected upon it. But though consciousness be not physical this does not imply that the objects of consciousness are not physical. Nor does it even imply that cognitive relations are not relations between physical things.

This conclusion seems commonplace, a return to the old-fashioned realism where common sense saw in the world merely minds and bodies and the relations between those bodies. And yet this is not a complete statement of the content of the new realism. Since the day of Reid and Beattie there has been an immense enrichment of the world both on the subjective and objective sides. Consciousness, contends the biologist, as soon as it is investigated, appears as a feature of a "big situation." This situation involves not only feeling and thinking, but also the organism,-blood and sinew and nerves and

impulses and appetites,-and finally physical things, electricity, light, matter. This is the final word of the last of the new realists. It is indeed a "big situation, containing a host of entities which are, at present, projectively indiscernible, because we do not possess all the possible angles of vision. How many such projective constants there are nobody knows, but geometry, physics, and psychology bring forward facts indicating that the variety of types is exceedingly great.

We leave the new realism in this its hopeful state. Its motto might be this: New worlds for old. In place of a disheartening idealism, which makes things in themselves undiscoverable, unless by the aid of an Absolute, it puts a world of actuality. In place of those speculative mountain peaks covered with the fogs of the phenomenal it points to valleys of decision whose soil is deep and whose crops are rich.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Chief authorities are starred)

INTRODUCTORY

BECELAERE, J. L. VAN. La Philosophie en Amérique, depuis les origines jusqu'à nos jours. 1904.

CURTIS, M.-M. In the Western Reserve University Bulletin. 1896.

JONES, ADAM L. Early American Philosophers. 1898. RILEY, WOODBRIDGE. American Philosophy: The Early Schools. 1907.

SANTAYANA, GEORGE. Winds of Doctrine. 1913.

TYLER, M. C. A History of American Literature. 1878. WENDELL, BARRETT. A Literary History of America. 1905.

I. PURITANISM

1. PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICS

BORGEAUD, CHARLES. The Rise of Modern Democracy. 1894. FRIEDENWALD, H. The Declaration of Independence. 1904. * MERRIAM, C. E. American Political Theories. 1903. WILLOUGHBY, W. W. The Nature of the State. 1896.

2. THE NEW ENGLAND FATHERS

ELLIS, G. E. The Puritan Age. 1888.

FOSTER, F. H. A Genetic History of the New England Theology. 1907.

UHDEN, F. H. The New England Theocracy. 1858. WALKER, WILLISTON. Ten New England Leaders. 1901.

3. THE REVOLT AGAINST PURITANISM

ALLEN, ETHAN. Reason the only Oracle of Man, or A Compenduous System of Natural Religion. 1784.

II. EARLY IDEALISM

1. SAMUEL JOHNSON

BEARDSLEY, E. E. Life and Correspondence of Rev. Samuel Johnson, D.D. 1874.

COLDEN, CADWALLADER.

Matter. 1751.

The Principles of Action in

** JOHNSON, SAMUEL. Elementa Philosophica. 1753. PORTER, NOAH. Bishop Berkeley. 1885.

2. JONATHAN EDWARDS

ALLEN, ALEXANDER V. G. Jonathan Edwards. 1890. GARDINER, H. N. Jonathan Edwards: a Retrospect. 1901.

*

3. MYSTICISM. FROM QUAKERISM TO CHRISTIAN SCIENCE FRIENDS' LIBRARY. (Ed. Evans.) 1837-1850. PENN, WILLIAM. No Cross, No Crown. 1668.

**

RILEY, WOODBRIDGE. The Personal Sources of Christian Science. Psychological Review. 1903.

WOOLMAN, JOHN. Journal. (Ed. Whittier.) 1871.

III. DEISM

1. THE ENGLISH INFLUENCES

COBB, S. H.

Pioneers of Religious Liberty in America.

1903.

SCHERGER, G. L. The Evolution of Modern Liberty. 1904.

2. THE COLONIAL COLLEGES

*CHAUNCY, CHARLES. Benevolence of the Deity. 1784. DEXTER, F. B. The Literary Diary of Ezra Stiles. 1901.

MATHER, COTTON. Essay for the Recording of Illustrious Providences. 1684.