Maxims of Political Economy.

The square spaces in the frieze between the triglyphs, are named metopes, and are fre- || Maxims of Political Economy. quently decorated with sculptures.

No. 12.

Maxims of Political Economy.

193

to correct this, and give a stronger tone of || for a century to come, there will not be full nationality at home."(1) demand produced by a system of home manuLXXII. "The state of agriculture would facture, for every particle of surplus produce improve with the improvement of manufac- that agriculture can supply. Of all the octures, by means of the general spirit of ener-cupations which may be employed in furnishand exertion, which no where exists in so high a degree as in a manufacturing country; and by the general improvement of machinery, and the demand for raw materials."(2)

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LXXIII. "The introduction of manufactures would extend knowledge of all kinds, particularly scientifical. The elements of natural philosophy and of chemistry, now form an indispensable branch of education among the manufacturers of England. They cannot get on without it.”(3)

ing articles either of immediate necessity, of reasonable want, or of direct connection with agriculture, we have in abundance the raw materials of manufacture; and the raw material, uninstructed man, to manufacture them. Is it to be pretended that these occupations, when fully under way at home, will not furnish a market for the superfluous produce of agriculture, provided that produce be, as it necessarily will be, suited to the demand? Or ought this variety of occupation, and above LXXIV. "The home trade, consisting in all, the mass of real knowledge it implies, to the exchange of agricultural surpluses for be renounced and neglected for the sake of articles of manufacture, produced in our own foreign commerce-that we may not intercountry, will, for a long time to come, furnish fere with the profits and connections of the the safest and least dangerous-the least ex-merchants who reside among us; and that we pensive and the least immoral-the most pro- may be taxed, and tolerated, and licensed, to ductive and the most patriotic employment fetch from abroad, what we can, with modeof surplus capital, however raised and accu- rate exertion, supply at home? And yet this mulated. The safest, because it requires no is the doctrine, not merely advocated and renavies exclusively for its protection; the least commended among us, but likely to become dangerous, because it furnishes no excite- the fashionable creed of political economy, ment to the prevailing madness of commer- wherever mercantile interests and conneccial wars; the least expensive, for the same tions prevail. It appears to me of national reason that it is the safest and the least danger-importance to counteract these notions."(1) ous; the least immoral, because it furnishes no temptation to the breach or evasion of the laws; to the multiplication of oaths and perjuries; and to the consequent prostration of all religious feeling, and all social duty; the most productive, because the capital admits of quicker returns; because the whole of the capital is permanently invested and employed at home; because it contributes, directly, immediately, and wholly, to the internal wealth and resources of the nation; because the credits given, are more easily watched, and more efectually protected by our own laws, well known, easily resorted to, and speedily exe-cessary."(2) cuted, than if exposed in distant and in foreign countries, controlled by foreign laws and foreign customs, and at the mercy of foreign agents; the most patriotic, because it binds the persons employed in it, by all the ties of habit and of interest to their own country; while foreign trade tends to denationalize the affections of those whose property is dispersed in foreign countries, whose interests are connected with foreign interests, whose capital is but partially invested at the place of their domicil, and who can remove with comparative facility from one country to another. The wise man observed of old, that where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.'"(4)

LXXV. "Nor can there be any fear that

(1) ) Idem. (2) Idem. (3, Idem. (4) Idem.

LXXVI. "The security of a country mainly depends on its spirit and its means; and the latter principally on its monied resources. Modified as the industry of this country now is, combined with our peculiar situation and want of a naval ascendency, whenever we have the misfortune to be involved in a war with a nation dominant on the ocean, and it is almost only with such we can at present be, the monied resources of the country, to a great extent, must fail. It is the duty of congress to adopt those measures of prudent foresight, which the events of war make ne

LXXVII. "Commerce and agriculture, till lately, almost the only, still constitute the principal sources of our wealth. So long as these remain uninterrupted, the country prospers: but war, as we are now circumstanced, is equally destructive to both. They both depend on foreign markets; and our country is placed, as it regards them, in a situation strictly insular. A wide ocean rolls between us and our markets. Our commerce neither is nor can be protected by the present means of the country. What, then, are the effects of a war with a maritime power-with England? Our commerce annihilated, spreading individual misery, and producing national

(1) Idem.

(2) Speech of J. C. Calhoun, formerly representative from the State of South Carolina, in favor of the minimum duty on cotton, delivered April, 1816.

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The Strongest Form of Columns, Walls, &c.

VOL. I.

poverty; our agriculture cut off from its ac-final result is the total derangement of our customed markets, the surplus product of the currency."(1) farmer perishes on his hands; and he ceases to produce, because he cannot sell. His resources are dried up, while his expenses are greatly increased; as all manufactured articles, the necessaries as well as the conveniences of life, rise to an extravagant price."(1)

LXXX. "Manufactures produce an interest strictly American, as much so as agriculture. In this they have the decided advantage of commerce or navigation; and the country will derive from it much advantage. Again: it is calculated to bind together more closely our widely spread republic. It will LXXVIII. "No country ought to be de- greatly increase our mutual dependence and pendent on another for its means of defence ;|| intercourse; and will, as a necessary conseat least, our musket and bayonet, our cannon quence, excite an increased attention to inand ball, ought to be domestic manufacture. ternal improvement, a subject every way so But what is more necessary to the defence of intimately connected with the ultimate ata country than its currency and finance? tainment of national strength, and the perfecCircumstanced as our country is, can these tion of our political institutions."(2) stand the shock of war? Behold the effect of the late war on them! When our manufactures are grown to a certain perfection, as they soon will, under the fostering care of government, we will no longer experience those evils. The farmer will find a ready market for his surplus produce; and, what is almost of equal consequence, a certain and cheap supply of all his wants. His prosperity will diffuse itself to every class in the community; and, instead of that langor of industry and individual distress now incident to a state of war and suspended commerce, the wealth and vigor of the community will not be materially impaired.__The arm of government will be nerved. Taxes, in the hour of danger, when essential to the independence of the nation, may be greatly increased. Loans, so uncertain and hazardous, may be less relied on; thus situated, the storm may beat without, but within all will be quiet and safe."(2)

LXXIX. "However prosperous our situation when at peace, with uninterrupted commerce, and nothing then could exceed it; the moment that we are involved in a war, the whole is reversed. When resources are most needed; when indispensable to maintain the honor, yes, the very existence of the nation, then they desert us. Our currency is also sure to experience the shock; and becomes so deranged as to prevent us from calling out fairly whatever of means is left to the country. The result of a war, in the present state of our naval power, is the blockade of our coast, and consequent destruction of our trade. The wants and habits of the

country, founded on the use of foreign articles, must be gratified. Importation to a certain extent continues, through the policy of the enemy, or unlawful traffic. The exportation of our bulky articles is prevented; the specie of the country is drawn off to pay the balance perpetually accumulating against us; and the

(1) Speech of Mr. Calhoun, delivered April, 1816. (2) Idem.

LXXXI. "We have a decided superiority in the raw materials of cotton hemp, and flax; in our alkalies for glass works; in the hides and the tanning materials of the leather manufactory; and we can easily procure that advantage, so far at least as our own consumption requires it, in the woollen manufac tory. Other branches might be enumerated wherein our advantages of internal resource are undeniable; but I cannot see why we should neglect or despise these. Nothing but a stimulus is wanted to induce and enable us to make a proper use of our domestic riches. But men of skill and men of capital fear to begin; lest, on the return of peace, they should be exposed, in the weakness and infancy of their undertakings, to contend with the overwhelming capital and skill of the European powers, particularly of Great Britain.(3)

LXXXII. "A productive establishment on a large scale, is sure to animate the industry of a whole neighborhood.(4)

LXXXIII. "There are many of the provinces of France that are miserable enough at the present; yet want nothing but towns to bring them into high cultivation: their situation would indeed be hopeless, were we to adopt that class of economists which recommends the purchasing of manufactures from foreign countries, with the raw produce of domestic agriculture.”(5)

The Strongest Forms of Columns, Walls,

& c

No. 12.

Productive Industry of Nations.

its length, the form must be that of a parabola, with its convexity turned inwards.

195

If a piece be spliced on a divided beam, equal in depth to half the depth of the beam, the strength is greater than that of the entire beam, in the ratio of 1 to 1054, very nearly.

For a vertical plank, bearing a weight at its extremity, the strongest and stiffest form is that of a common parabola, with its convexity outwards. If the weight is equally divided, it must be a triangle. To support its own weight, it must have for its outline a common parabola, with its convexity inwards. If such a plank were supported by its lateral adhesion only, its outline must be a logarith-pillar will support twice as much as it will mic curve, to sustain its own weight.

Coulomb found the lateral cohesion of brick and stone only 1-44 more than the direct cohesion, which, for stone, was 215 pounds for a square inch; for good brick from 280 to 300. Supposing this lateral cohesion constant, a

suspend, and its angle of rupture will be 45 A horizontal column turned in a lathe, or degrees. From the same supposition it may having all its transverse sections similar, must be inferred, that the strongest form of a body have its outline a cubical parabola, convex of given thickness for supporting a weight, outwards, in order to support the greatest is that of a circle, since the power of the weight at its extremity. The same form is weight in the direction of every section vaalso the stiffest. To support a weight equally ||ries as the length of that section; and the distributed through the length, the curve strength is therefore equal throughout the must be a semicubical parabola. To support substance. But if the cohesion is increased, its own weight, the outline mast be a common like friction, by pressure, and supposing, with parabola, convex towards the axis, having its || Amantons, that this increase, for brick, is vertex at the extremity.

A triangular prism fixed at one end, with its edge uppermost is weaker than if its depth were reduced to eight-ninths, by cutting away the edge. With a certain force, such a beam would crack at its edge, and not break off.

three-fourths of the weight, the plane of rupture of a prismatic pillar will form, according to Coulomb, an angle of 63° 26' with the horizon, and the strength will be doubled.— On both suppositions the strength is simply as the section.

Productive Industry of Nations.

No. I.

ENGLAND.

If a beam supported at both ends, have all its transverse sections similar, the two portions must have their outlines cubic parabolas. For a weight equally divided, or applied to any point at pleasure, the cube of the diam- The productive industry of England, at this eter must be as the square of the segments. moment, far surpasses that of any other counA wall, turning a vertical face to the wind, try, either ancient or modern. Her fabrics ought to have the other face an inclined plane, clothe the most distant nations; her vessels in order to resist the force of the wind to the traverse alike the polar and equatorial seas. greatest advantage, if made of cohesive ma- The downfall of the feudal power; the civil terials; but if loose materials, it ought to be||and social advantages which the people acconvex and parabolic behind.

A cohesive wall, supporting a bank of earth or a fluid with its vertical face, ought to be concave behind, in the form of a semicubical parabola, with its vertex at the top of the wall: but if the materials are loose, the back of the wall should be an inclined plane.

A pillar or column of cohesive materials, formed to resist the wind, must be a cone or a pyramid; of loose materials, a parabolic conoid; to support its own weight only, a pillar must have the logarithmic curve for its outline.

A mortise hole should be taken out of the middle of a beam, not from one side; but if it is on the concave side, and is filled up with hard wood, it does not diminish the strength. For similar reasons, a piece spliced on, to strengthen a beam, should be on the convex side. If a cylinder is to be supported at two points with the least strain, the distance between the points should be 5858 of the length.

quired under the last Henries; and, above all, the spirit of enterprise diffused among them under Elizabeth, gave a great impulse to commerce and industry. It was not, however, till the era of the Revolution, that the nation entered upon that grand career of prosperity, in which she has ever since proceeded with accelerated activity.

Agriculture, as the greatest and most es||sential source of human wealth and comfort, must always claim pre-eminence over the other branches of human industry. For two or three centuries the English tenantry have been an independent and substantial race.Such had been the progress of agriculture, that, even in the middle of the last century, England had become a regular grain-exporting country. Still, fifty years ago, the prac tice of this important art was comparatively cumbrous, costly, and unproductive. Since that time, nobles and statesmen have vied with each other in their zeal for the promotion of agriculture. Prizes, exhibitions, and

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VOL. 1.

other institutions calculated to excite a spirit ||as to this particular, France excels not only of improvement, have been established on a in silks and cambrics, but even in woollens; great scale. An extraordinary impulse was and British porcelain does not equal that of also given by the scarcity at the close of the Dresden. But she stands unrivalled in the eighteenth century; when the continental immensity of useful and valuable products, ports were closed, and grain rose to an un- calculated for the consumption of the great precedented price, from which it has since body of mankind; and above all in the stubeen reduced, indeed, but not to its former pendous exertions made in contriving and rate. The old routine system was, after that constructing the machinery by which they crisis, broken up, and every exertion made to are produced. augment the products of the soil. Commons The woollen manufacture is the old staple were enclosed, marshes drained, grasses of of the country. As soon as England began the most useful species cultivated, and every to exercise any kind of industry, her first aim process, that multiplied experiments had was to manufacture her own wools, instead proved to be advantageous, introduced. Par- of leaving this operation in the hands of the ticular attention was bestowed in improving Flemings. The fabric began in Kent and the breed of cattle and sheep; and for the Sussex; but soon spread and fixed itself in accomplishment of this purpose, the best spe- the interior districts; that of coarse woollens in cies were imported from abroad. At the the West Riding of Yorkshire, and that of the same time, economical farming was greatly finer cloths in Gloucestershire, and Wiltshire. studied; the disproportionate number of horses In 1800 the total value of the fabrics was and oxen was reduced; and machinery, par- $88,000,000, of which not much less than half ticularly the threshing-machine, came into was exported. In the course of the century it general use. Thus a great augmentation has continued increasing, though not with the took place in the produce of the soil; still same rapidity as some other fabrics. The greater in the profit of the farmer, and much quantity exported has not, however, been the greatest in the rent of the landlord, which, augmented in proportion. In 1802, it exceedin many instances, was more than tripled.-ed $31,000,000; but in 1832 was only $23,The reduced prices, however, which have||200,000. This manufacture, however, deultimately been the result of this augmented production, have, at last, rendered it difficult to support the great advance in this last particular.

The natural fertility of England is not equal to that of the countries in the south of Europe. Her pastures, however, are richer; and her soil is capable of yielding all the valuable kinds of grain in abundance, and of good, if not superior quality. These natural advantages, improved by her extraordinary industry, raise the agricultural products of England to a much greater amount than those of any other country in Europe.

The surface of England is thirty-seven millions of acres. About half a million is occupied by roads; and if we also make allowance for waters, natural and artificial, &c., we may probably have to deduct two millions from the part which forms the proper subject of agriculture. Of this, half is under the plough, and half devoted to pasturage; upwards of three millions are in wheat; about three millions in oats and beans, and between two and three millions in barley. About 300,000 cwt. of hops, of the value of $888,000, and 4,400,000 gallons of cider, are annually produced.

The manufactures of Britain, still more than even the immense products of her agriculture, have astonished the world, and raised her to a decided superiority over all other nations. This distinction she has attained, not so much by their extreme fineness; for,

pending chiefly upon home consumption, is less liable to vicissitude than those which have their principal market in foreign countries.

The wool is partly produced in Britain, partly drawn from abroad. English wool is divided into long and short. The former was long considered as exclusively adapted to worsted stuffs; but the recent improvements in machinery have enabled the manufacturer to produce these stuffs almost equally well from shorter wool. The short wool is fitted for cloth and hats; but all that is produced in England is of secondary fineness. Efforts were made, about the close of the last century, to introduce the merino breed from Spain, and not without success; but the flesh being bad, the farmers gave it up, and devoting themselves to the improvement of the carcass, have allowed the wool even to degenerate, though the increased quantity is supposed to indemnify them. The best short wool is that of Sussex (Southdown) and Norfolk; the best long wool that of Lincoln. The number of short-woolled sheep throughout England, in 1828, amounted to about 14,850,000, that of long-woolled to 4,150,000; and the produce was 264,000 packs of long, and 120,000 packs of short wool; to which might be added 69,000 packs of lamb's wool, and 9000 for Wales; making in all 463,000. The defect of English wool renders it necessary to import a large quantity from abroad. The fleece chiefly valued is that of the merino, long confined to