purpose. The first necessity of action is for union to protect this freedom, or to secure a better environment for living out our relation to God. This is the sim. plest statement of the basis of man's moral duties. In it is found the ultimate test as to the right or wrong of any action.

In planning for a study of moral science, the first defficulty encountered arises from the purely subjective nature of it, which is only to be overcome through the discovery of some way by which it may be universalized; and we find a method of accomplishing this through that institutional life of man in the corporate state, wherein the individual self has been described as merged in the collective or universal self. It must be through some form of history, then, that we are to come at those theorems of life's motives, the demonstrations of which will yield training and knowledge of what by analogy we may call pure moral science;-as we separate pure mathematics from physics. The subject of history has been approached by various authors from various points of view, but what is named history treats the subject objectively as yet, never subjectively. We can find the latter treatment only occasionally in works. classified as pure literature. But these literary examples show the possibility of presenting the state as individual, albeit "a leviatban," as Hobbs called it, rather than as an institution overruling individuals. Surely we want something different from the purely objective scientific treatment of sociology, as well as from that narrative chronology best described as "descriptive sociology." We do not find sufficient agreement with our spiritual selves in a society represented as so physical as to be subject almost to biological laws of growth or decay, and capable of vivisection as an organism entirely outside of ourselves; and it must be confessed that human life presented

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individually, that is through its recorded acts, as in "descriptive sociology" or history as the term is generally understood, can not present the entire source of human power. Back of the individual, yet acting through him, is the accumulated power of the race; and still back of that is the power of the universe in so far as all are united in the same manifestation of divine purpose.

How frankly the ancients acknowledged their inability to present a sufficient individual means to account for the recorded result! In the historical books of the Bible we constantly meet such expressions as: "The word of the Lord came," "The Lord strengthened his arm," "The Lord giveth you the city;" and in Grecian historic myths and legends the gods and goddesses themselves are made to appear to aid in accomplishing the individual action; for the power thus sought to be explained is to be imaged alone by the word God.

Modern historians make little direct reference to this cumulative power in human affairs, and in their presentation the results of recorded life appear as out of proportion to the means available, when tested by our own consciousness of what constitutes human means.

Herein lies the abstract truth of history, that element of truth which is not to be portrayed by the mere record of events, however complete and accurate; an impression of which only is to be conveyed by proper selection, emphasis, and grouping of events to allow of subjective treatment. It is the spiritual or character element of the picture which we find lacking in the otherwise true photograph, but which is necessary to the portrait before it can impress on the beholder the effect of the living variation and play of the countenance . To accomplish this the artist exaggerates some physical characteristics and tones down others, as the living expression is continually doing; thus

making the impression conveyed truer than that of the exact photograph.

In the modern definition of the word history, its meaning is restricted to the subject matter, as "a record of the past." But the Greek word—historein-"to learn or know by inquiry" from which it is derived, has reference rather to the receiving object, the student as an active agent, seeking to know not simply facts, but primarily the relation of facts or events to himself, that he may realize himself in the world. It is in this light that Emerson presents history in the admonition, "The student is to read history actively and not passively; to esteem his own life the text, and books the commentary."

History, in this sense, deals with facts as symbols of the thought or state of the human mind, and the external world is seen to grow into being, as it were, with the growth of the human mind; to be come, as Emerson says, "its correlative."

With Columbus, man became too large for a limited flat surface, and to prevent his falling off, a globe became necessary. With Newton, a lone planet became too small, and lest it fall, as the apple from the tree, a solar system became necessary. The facts were discovered through the affinity of the individual or internal consciousness with the universal or external realization. That we are able to discover and understand the laws of motion of a solar system shows our affinity to that extent with the Creator's mind. The horse or dog has no such affinity.

And so with the events in the history of man's relation to man, a more subtle law has governed them-the power to understand which lies within the range of our affinities. But it is only, as Emerson says, through "an ethical reformation, an influx of the ever new, ever sanative conscience," that we may "trulier express our central and wide-related nature, instead of this old chronology of

selfishness and pride to which we have too long lent our eyes."

The bare record of history would indicate the strength of conquerors, but the truth shows rather the weakness of the conquered through the loss of the original impulse of affinity with the universal. Alexander, with the teachings of an Aristotle yet fresh in his mind, and leading, as a chosen commander, a phalanx composed of individuals united through the common purpose of relieving Greece from the danger of barbaric despotism, wins easily over the Persian Darius Codomanus, who had been raised to power through the butcheries of Bogôas, over a people subdued by the bloody Ochus, and who had submitted to the weak Artaxerxes, controlled by the evil minded Amestris and Amytis.

In a modern general history, the Persian annals, treated from the Persian point of view, appear in one part of thè book and in a different part separated by other annals, appears the account of Alexander's campaign treated from the Macedonian point of view; accurate fairness to each people being the idea. But of what value to us in this age is either the Persian or the Macedonian point of view? We need the point of view of humanity in its recent development. That is the one which holds truth for us. The facts of that age, as facts, are no longer valuable except as antiquarian knowledge, but as symbols, showing in heroic mould elements belonging to all human life, we seek to understand them; that is, to find their agreement with ourselves. And only through such a study of history, are we to acquire the wisdom to appreciate the range of human powers and to embody in the physical or historical fact, the spiritual truth thereby symbolized. May we not accomplish this union of the objective fact with the subjective symbol, by studying together the historic record and the purely literary work found

best to symbolize or personify it; or in which may be found a subjective treatment of life interpreting the historical

events?

This question can best be fully understood through an illustration, and it is the intention to present in another article such an illustration: Taking up for that purpose a time in our own country so far back in the dim past as apparently to hold no vital interest for us, namely, the time of the mound builders. This will be attempted by giving, first, the few facts that may yet be of educational value through the existence of those peculiar

monuments yet among us; (2) next, by indicating the treatment which will be of psychological value; as in exercising the imagination and thinking powers in the formation of a reasonable hypothesis of the conditions of the people who erected those mounds from the basis of the known character and conditions of the Indian tribes of historic times; and (3) finally, to find that subjective treatment which will unite us to that shadowy people through the bonds of human fellowship in the study of those legends embodied by the poet Longfellow in his "Song of Hiawatha."

Normal school work in the state of California began in a very simple and primitive fashion, and for several years was very slow in developing into something better. But it must be remembered to the credit of the state that this beginning was made very early, when the twelve-year-old state was struggling amid the beginnings of all the numberless institutions and processes whose existence in older communities is a matter of course. It is a subject for surprise, not that the first years of the normal school in California witnessed but slow growth, but that a normal school could have received any attention at all from the young and growing state.

Passing over Senor Romero's school in Monterey of the year 1836, which under the ambitious title of Escuela Normal seems to have given only elementary instruction, we come to an institution which, although not giving strictly normal instruction, still deserves mention

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here. It was established in 1857 by the city of San Francisco and known as Minns's evening normal. At its head was George. W. Minns, a graduate of Harvard college and of Howard Dane law school. He was afterwards principal of the San Francisco boys' high school and of the California state normal. Minns had three assistants. The school met Monday evenings and attendance was made compulsory on all city teachers. Hon. John Swett was one of the instructors, and he says of the school: "Nothing more was ever contemplated by the Minns evening normal school than the scholastic training of teachers for examination for high grade certificates. It was not intended for training in methods or the psychology of teaching." Its graduates during its five years existence numbered fifty-four.

The beginning of true normal instruction was made by the state. In 1859 and again in 1860 State Superintendent

A. J. Moulder urged upon the legislature the need of provision by the state for the training of teachers. He seems, however, to have accomplished little except the sending of several legislators to their dictionaries to find out what a normal school is. In 1861 the first California state teachers' institute took up the cause and appointed a committee to consider the question of a normal school. Of this committee Henry B. James, superintendent of the San Francisco schools, was chairman and Mr. Minns was a member. In their report, which Superintendent Moulder embodied in full in his next re-, port to the legislature, they set forth at some length the urgent need of a normal school for California, quoting Horace Mann as an authority whose words ought to have weight.

The legislature, thus urged, passed an act creating the "State Normal School of California," and entrusted its management to a board of trustees consisting ex-officio of the state board of education and the city school superintendents of San Francisco, Sacramento, and Marysville.

The school was located temporarily in San Francisco, and $3,000 was appropriated to defray the expenses of the first year, during which the school was to remain open at least five months. An additional appropriation of $1,200 was afterward secured to continue the school till May, 1863, making a total for the first year of $4,200 in state scrip, equivalent to $2,800 in cash. The need then existing not only for normal but also elementary schools, is sufficiently evidenced by the language of the act, wherein it is provided that "females of fifteen years or over, or any male of the age of eighteen years or over, shall be entitled to admission ** upon declaring *** his or her intention" to teach. May 5, 1862, the bill received the signature of the Governor of California, Leland Stanford, whose generous services

*

to education are known and read of all

men.

The California State Normal School opened to receive pupils Monday, July 21, 1862, with Ahira Holmes as principal and sole teacher. Mr. Holmes was a native of Plymouth, Mass., and graduated from the Bridgewater Normal in 1847. He had had considerable experience as a grammar school principal in San Francisco, and was an earnest and devoted teacher, seeming perhaps to his pupils a little stern but forfeiting none. of their respect on that account. The enrollment at first was six, four of whom afterward finished the course and taught many years. The number of students, however, increased till it was thirty-one at the end of the first term. The principal speaks of many of his pupils as deficient in knowledge of the elementary branches and in mental discipline and vigor, and he complains of their irregular attendance. One of these early pupils in a recent letter indicates the motive which led him to the school thus: "At that time there were on the Pacific coast few schools opening their portals to overI had to grown country louts.

***

go there or stay out of school."

The school was opened in a room of the high school building, but in these first years did not remain long in any one place, being frequently removed from one undesirable location to another little if any better, until in September, 1865, permanent quarters were found for the remainder of its stay in San Francisco on Market street.

The principal gives a formidable list of the subjects taught, which includes most common school and some high school studies. He adds: "The direct instruction on the science or methods of teaching which has been given to the class, has been principally of an incidental nature and in connection with the ordinary class drills. The more advanced pupils have been re

quired to conduct class exercises in the model department under the supervision of one of the teachers, and have done the same in the normal school also, at every favorable opportunity." The model department referred to had been established October 31, and was in charge of Miss Helen M. Clark, a graduate of the Toronto Normal School. In addition to the opportunities offered here the normal pupils occasionally served as substitute. teachers in the San Francisco public schools. May 11, 1863, the first class was graduated, consisting of four young ladies.

For the second year a more liberal ap: propriation ($6,000) was secured, and the teaching force was increased. The school had proven its right to be, and the future seemed assured. The total enrollment during the first two years was 126, of whom twenty had taught before coming to the school. There followed a series of changes in the principalship. In 1865 George W. Minns became principal. He was succeeded in July, 1867, by George Tait, a graduate of the University of Virginia, who had been four years superintendent of the San Francisco schools. After a short interregnum following his resignation, in which H. P. Carlton, one of the assistant teachers, served as principal, that position was filled by the election of Dr. William T. Lucky, a graduate of McKendree college, Lebanon, Ill., and a teacher of wide experience, mostly in private schools. One who knew him speaks of him as a man of even balance, a clear thinker, an extraordinary teacher, an impressive preacher; intensely active and energetic in everything he undertook. In August, 1873, he resigned and removed to Los Angeles. Mention should also be made here of Miss Eliza W. Houghton, who was connected with the school as instructor from 1864 to 1877, holding the position of preceptress for the last four years. She was a native of

Massachusetts, and a graduate of Mt. Holyoke seminary. Her pupils cherished for her the deepest feelings of veneration and love. She was a lady of rare culture and nobleness of character, and her presence in the school was a powerful influence for good. And as a warm and active friend of the school, zealous in the discharge of every duty as a trustee, John Swett did a service such as few could have done. One of the graduates of the school calls him the Horace Mann of the Pacific coast, and the name is not inappropriate.

The policy of the school during these first years seems to have been eminently practical. Those having it in charge sought not to attain any lofty ideal, but rather to meet the most pressing educational need of the time-to do what their hands found to do. State Superintendent John Swett, in his report for 1867, thus states his conception of the need which the normal school was called upon to satisfy: "The great demand in this state is for good teachers in the lower grade public schools. Skill in teaching, with average scholarship in studies, for the common schools, is more desirable than the highest scholarship without a knowledge of the practical methods to be pursued in the school room. Consequently,' he adds, "the course of study has been kept down to a minimum." Of interest is the statement, found in the same report, that of the 110 graduates of the normal school from its foundation in 1862 to the fall of 1867, all but thirteen were then teaching, and had been teaching ever since graduation.

The school was now approaching a period of rapid progress in usefulness and popularity. In 1869 Miss Matilda Lewis, a graduate of the Oswego (New York) normal, was put in charge of the training school, and infused new life into. this important branch of normal work. She introduced teaching by object lessons,