war. What more striking example of this fact could we have than the recent manifestation of this spirit in congress?

So long as our present non-social ideals of character prevail first in the school, and later in the community, so long will our municipal reforms prove to be both ineffectual and transient. They are brought about through the infinite labor of the few, only at the next election to relapse into the former state. As in the cities there is the greatest need for these reconstructed ideals of character, so in the cities, with whose powerful agencies, school, pulpit, and press, there are to be found the best opportunities for realizing them. CHARLES DEGARMO.

Swarthmore College.

Form Studies and Thought Studies.

What do our frieuds mean when they speak of "thought studies and form studies?" I have been unable to make anything of this classification, in way of pedagogical guidance; and sometimes fear that it is fraught with mischief.

The distinction involved is a fundamental relation involved in all thinking. There can be no thought without form, and no form without its thought, or content.

We speak of things and their symbols; but every symbol is at the same time a thing, and every thing is at the same time a symbol. There is no appearance without its essence; and no essence which does not appear. A tree is the form of its producing activity; the activity manifests itself in the form of the tree. They are two sides of the same fact; neither can be thought without the other.

Now, it is said, for instance, that a language study is a form study and natural science is a thought study. How this can be I cannot see. Both words and nature forms are real living things. Botn are the forms of ideas, both the manifestation of thought. Sometimes we sneer at the study of mere words; but it is just as easy to study mere forms as mere words; and quite as frequently done. A word is just as substantial a thing as a stone. Neither can be studied without getting at the informing energy. Drawing and history are said to belong,

respectively, to form and thought studies; but both are the studies of the forms in which life manifests itself; and both are the studies of life which manifests itself in certain forms.

I have turned this matter over exactly a thousand and one times, and I am unable to the last to put some studies on one side of a line and call them form studies, and others on the opposite side of the line and call them thought studies. But the effort has been worth while, for it has impressed more deeply the fundamental relation involved in thinking every subject. Since the reality of everything is in and through the union of form and content, to know anything is to grasp it under the relation of form and content. So that whether one study grammar or psychology, the constant requirement is to distinguish and discern the relation between the form and the content.

This fundamental method, or form, of activity common to all subjects accounts for the fact, usually overlooked, that the teaching of all subjects is substantially the same. The teaching of science, psychology, and grammar is precisely by the same method; and he who understands the teaching of one understands the teaching of the other, provided the subject matter is known. The scientific method used in teaching natural objects is the same process by which grammar or psychology is taught. The differences are merely external. Any detailed statement of the psychological movement in one case answers for the others-is identical with that for the others. This fact ought to keep us from getting lost in the woods in the study of methods.

But the best test, that the classification of which I have spoken, is not valid is the fact that it has no guidance for the teacher has no pedagogical value. Those who make it shelve it the moment it is made. Every definition and every classification should be made for guidance to further thought; they are not ends in themselves, but are tested by their potency in future thinking. By their fruits shall ye know them. To what end is this distinction into form studies and thought studies? Does it mean that in some studies the form is to be exalted and emphasized to the neglect of the

content? If so, it may account for much of the mischief of formalism in education. And does it mean that in another class of studies the content must receive the exclusive attention? If so this may account for the formlessness of thought as the result of our methods of teaching.

All this seems to be a result of a mechanical style of pedagogical thinking; for content and form are set apart side by side and each conceived as if it were not vital to the other. and through the other; analysis, is the other.

But each is in each, in last The word idea

means both form and creative energy. The categories, or forms of thought, are the living process of thought. The form of a triangle is the specified energy which produces it. The sentence, as studied in grammar, is the incarnation of thought; it is form and thought in vital unity; and it cannot exist except in and through this unity. To attempt to study one term of this relation without the other, as suggested by the classification under question, is unnatural and mischievous. What say you? ARNOLD TOMPKINS.

Grammar.

Grammar is that language study which treats of the forms and uses of words in expressing thought. Language lessons seek to make the learner skillful in expressing thoughts, by practice, under criticism, in using language. He learns to speak and write by speaking and writing a great deal, and having his errors pointed out and corrected. In this way he learns what words to use and how to arrange them. The most common error in the language lesson period is to teach mere sentence forms without having any live thoughts to express which the pupil is interested in uttering. The making of barren, dead forms of sentences is a very slow and uninteresting way of learning to use our language. The child must be interested in saying something and the art of the teacher is to lead him to say those things that call for the forms' which he wishes to teach. Grammar is a study of these forms with a view of determining the special use of each in expressing the thought.

There are two classes of grammatical forms. (1) One is called Etymology and (2) the other Syntax.

In etymology the form of the word is changed to show a different use of the word in the sentence:-he shows one use, his shows another, and him still another. The syntactical forms are determined by the arrangement and use of words and groups of words as the sense requires.

The teaching of grammar, proper, begins when the child begins to study how the sentence is made up. This study may commence at a very early age, therefore. The simpler uses of words and groups of words in sentences, a child in the lower grades can readily learn to

see.

AN ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISE.

A beginning lesson in grammar might pursue the following plan and observe all the requirements suggested above:

1. Interest the children in the voices of animals by having them imitate them: (1) a dog, (2) a sheep, (3) a cow, (4) a wolf, (5) a bee, (6) a hen, (7) a rooster, (8) a bear, (9) a crow, (10) a horse, (11) a robin, (12) a quail, (13) a puppy, etc., etc. It is supposed that the teacher will prepare a list of names of animals that the children know. The interesting thing in this exercise will be their attempts at imitating their voices.

2. Next let the children name the voices by supplying the proper verbs:e. g. (1) the dog barks, (2) the sheep bleats, (3) the cow bellows, (4) the wolf howls, (5) the bee buzzes, etc., etc.

These sentences are written on the blackboard as they are formed, or better, on paper, by children at their seats.

Both of these are exercises in composition; in the first the child imitates the voice, and in the second he gives a word for it.

It is an exercise, too, in writing, spelling, capitals, and punctuation. If the teacher is wide-awake, the pupils will be interested in these exercises. If they are given in a merely perfunctory way, they will be as lifeless and formal as any other dead thing.

3. The class might next prepare another set of similar sentences selecting other, animals, and after they are written.

by the children the first lesson in grammar may be given thus:

What does the bee do? (buzzes.) Draw a line under the word that tells what the bee does. What does the dove do? (coos.) Draw a line under that part of the sentence.

Proceed in this way with a large number of sentences formed by the children after the manner suggested above. They can change from animals to inanimate things, and to people. The purpose is to show that a part of the sentence tells what the subject does. When this is discovered by the class the term predicate can be given. It is a new idea to the children and can receive its appropriate name as soon as the children have the idea.

4. The next exercise might be a similar one to the last, setting off the subject. What crows? the rooster crows, drawing a line under the subject. What roars? The lion roars. Etc., etc.

5. The next exercise would be one where the pupils and teacher would form simple sentences about things, and then write them down and afterwards analyze them by pointing out the subject and the predicate.

This division of a sentence into subject and predicate is the first step in the teaching of grammar. Young children can make this division provided the teacher asks the questions properly and the pupils are really thinking about something that interests them. It is when the children merely consider the words without thinking of what the sentence expresses that they "see no sense in grammar." If they are started right they will not be apt to fall into this vi

cious habit.

The action of forces in vegetation produce the rose or the daisy, and botany is the knowledge of the process by which these forces work in making the different plants.

So, too, it is the activity we call thought that produces the different. sentences, and grammar is merely the knowledge of the process by which thought produces these sentences. When rightly viewed grammar is as much a natural science as is botany, and should be learned by a similar method.

When the mind thinks it always thinks

about something. This something is the subject. It also thinks something about the subject. This is the predicate. There can be no thinking unless there is a subject and a predicate. So, too, there can be no plant unless there are roots and leaves. Or, we may say with greater accuracy, the typical sentence has a subject and predicate, and the typical plant has roots and leaves. Vegetable energy produces the plant. Thought energy produces the sentence. As botany cannot be learned by ignoring the energy that produces the plant, so grammar cannot be learned by disregarding the thought which the sentence expresses.

We have given here the key to all successful teaching of grammar. G.P.B.

Questioning In Reading.

Dr. Chas. McMurry says: "The range of possibilities in questioning in reading is very wide. If a rational, sensible question is regarded as the central or zero point there are many degrees below it in the art of questioning and many degrees above it. Below is a host of half-rational or useless questions which would better be left unborn. What does this word mean? Why didn't you study your lesson? Why weren't you paying attention? How many mistakes did Mary make?

* *

*

"Much time is sometimes wasted in trying to answer aimless or trivial questions: Peter, what does this word mean and how do you pronounce it? Ethel may try it. Who thinks he can pronounce it better? Johnny, try it. Finally the teacher may pass on to something else without even making clear the true pronunciation or meaning. This is worse than killing time. It is befuddling the children. A question should aim clearly at some important idea and should bring out a definite result. The pupils should have time to think but not to guess and dawdle, and then to be left groping in the dark.

"The chief aim of questions is to arouse vigor and variety of thought as a means of better appreciation and expression. Children read poorly because they do not see the meaning or do not feel the force of the sentiment. Questioning for mean

ing is equivalent to that for securing expression and thus two birds are hit with one stone. A pointed question energizes thought along a definite line and leads to a more intense and vivid perception of the meaning. This is just the vantage ground we desire in order to secure good expression. We wish children not to imitate, but first to see and feel and then to express in becoming wise, the thought as they see it and feel it. This makes reading a genuine performance, not parrot-like formalism.

"At the right time and in the right manner, pupils should have drill in the technique of reading which is as necessary to good reading as piano technique is necessary to good piano music. I forbear to discuss this, having already passed the limits set for this article.' 99 Special Method in Reading.

Music in the Primary Grades. The thought of teaching singing is always more or less of a perplexity to the inexperienced or to the one who has had no training. She does not question its value; on the contrary, she realizes its great assistance in disciplining, invigorating, and awakening a class; the difficulty lies in determining the essentials, and the best manner of presenting them.

We should keep in mind the general principle of proceeding from the known. to the unknown; must build upon some basis that is within the child's experi

ence.

In teaching intervals, as doh-me, sohdoh, etc., we are introduced to a family composed of a number of members, each having a distinct individuality, which the children will readily understand, as they do not mistake their mothers for some one else's mother.

We are only to become acquainted with a few, as we wish to be able to recognize them whenever we meet them.

Low doh (or the keynote of the scale) is the father tone, strong, decided, protective, dignified.

Soh (a fifth above the doh) is the soldier brother tone, rousing, inspiring, trumpet like, bright.

little sister, peaceful, happy, meek, and mild, doing little unobtrusive deeds of kindness, bringing softness and sweetness to father doh.

Upper doh (marked (doh') with a one, an octave above father doh,) is the mother, gentle, loving, kind.

The

These four should be firmly impressed on the minds of the class before others are introduced to them. Let them (the children) dilate upon the various members of this family, making the concept as strong and clear as possible; then when the expression in tone comes they will express these mental effects. teacher, of course, gives the pattern, singing in a soft, expressive voice, then listens while the children in turn sing to her. Individual work can be used here to advantage, and a good foundation is absolutely essential to a beautiful, symmetrical building.

Ray (between doh and me) is the little brother, active, hopeful, eager to assist, bright.

Te (or se) (a half tone below the upper doh) is the baby tone, sensitive, clinging, piercing, loving, and longing to go to mother doh.

Fah (the fourth of the scale, between soh and me,) is the grandfather tone, mature, developed, prayerful, strongly attracted to the sincerity and sweetness of me.

Lah (the sixth of the scale, just above soh,) is the grandmother, changeable, a being of moods, happy and gay at one time, sorrowful and drooping at another; sometimes called the weeping willow.

For the purpose of drilling the class on these intervals, many devices may be used. (1) By hand signs; (2) by modulator work; (3) by blackboard writing; (4) by numbers.

(1) By hand signs, as follows: Each position of the hand representing one of the tones of the scale, which the children sing in response to it.

Doh-closed hand.

Me-open hand, palm downward.

Soh-open band, palm toward self, thumb pointing up; the thumb may represent the brother in soldier's cap.

Doh'-closed hand raised.

Te (or se)-closed hand, first finger pointing up, showing tendency to go to doh1.

In these exercises d stands for doh, m for me, s for soh, d1 for high doh, t for te, r for ray, f for fah, 1 for lah.

The teacher simply gives the keynote, doh, taking care that sometimes it is high, sometimes low, the various intervals taking their places each time from it.

Then we will play a little game. The children are asked to close their eyes, the teacher telling that she is writing a short story, which they may have a few seconds to look at, then it is to be erased. The children look at the board, and see dsm sd written on it. The teacher erases. The children are anxious to tell her it, sing it for her, or point it on the modulator, whichever she may choose. The children enter beartily into the game, and the interest is kept up to the end of the lesson.

(4) by figures, written or represented by fingers.

Conquering the Verb.

The aim in this article is to give illustrations of work that the writer has found helpful in his own teaching, and to show how the matter may be presented at different stages of the child's advancement.

That we learn to do by doing is indisputable; but unfortunately, this is as true of learning the wrong as it is of learning the right. With most pupils, long continued use of incorrect forms has worn deep grooves in which the tongue runs smoothly long before the children come under the teacher's care. Patient and persistent drill must be begun at once to make new grooves and to obliterate the old ones. In the primary grades the work must be mainly drill in doing the right with comparatively little concerning the why or wherefore.

The work in the middle grades must be characterized by the same steady drill; but there must be a gradual transition from authority to self-direction. Here the young people should be led to see the common sense of capitalization, punctuation, and paragraphing, and to perceive the relations existing between changes in meaning and changes in form and construction.

In the upper two grades, English grammar should be taught thoroughly. Here the student should reach and master those generalizations that prove safe guides;