and holidays, in connection with the difficulty in beginning, and when begun to keep going, reduce the winter semester to four and the summer semester to three months.

The theological faculty of the German university, taken as a whole, is a conservative, alert, hard-working body. Apart from the increase in students, its power and position are about the same as they were thirty years ago. It would be as erroneous to characterize German theology by certain Radicals, as to make Strauss and Feuerbach stand for German philosophy and religion. The professor has always taken an active interest in political matters, usually on the side of a State Church. To attack the church is to attack the state, as has been recently shown by Egidy's exit from the army on account of his "Ernste Gedanken." Questions concerning Jews, Jesuits, and heretics are numerous enough to keep theology alive at all points. Just now the proposition to repeal the laws against the Jesuits has drawn forth a score of pamphlets. Even as I write, an anti-" Anti-Semitic Society" is being formed, with some of the strongest names in Germany, such as Gneist, Windscheid, von Ihering, Gustav Freytag, and Paul Heyse, in its lists. It is sometimes said, that at present theology is becoming more practical, and that the Old Testament is receiving much more attention. So far as the statistics of the last twelve or fifteen years are concerned there is no ground for either statement. Even considering Docenten, there is no change in the proportion of time given to the Old Testament, ethics, or pedagogy. In Catholic universities, as Munich, Freiburg, and Würzburg, or where the faculties are mixed, as in Bonn, Breslau, and Tübingen, more attention seems to be given to the ethical, legal, and historical elements in theology. Of the 5494 students of theology, 4273 are Protestant and 1221 are Catholic. The strongest theological faculties are in Berlin and Halle, the latter having nearly one-half of its students in this department. Celebrated names do not appear to have much influence on the distribution of theological students. The loss of Delitzsch did not much lessen the number in Leipzig, the removal of Harnack to Berlin did not at all affect the attend

ance in Giessen, while the numbers increased in Göttingen upon the death of Ritschl.

The most noticeable feature in the law faculty is the large proportion of time given to the exposition of the Pandecten. Out of a total of 1131 hours per week, 374 are given to Roman law, leaving but 757 hours for canon, civil, criminal, municipal, international, commercial, constitutional law, and the history and philosophy of these branches. A partial explanation of this is that Roman and German law are so vitally connected that the codes of the different states are to a great extent expressions and applications of the principles of the Pandects. The: disproportion nevertheless does not admit of rational justifica-tion. A learned jurist remarks: "Even at the present time: our young jurists, when they leave the university, know abso-lutely nothing except to parrot Roman and German law, and only very recently, in a very few universities, do they hear even once a sound from other worlds." This is but a mild statement of a wretched condition. Nasse, Holtzendorf, Meyer, and Lorenz all agree, that, with the exception of criminal and canon law, the students of the universities are thoroughly ignorant of public law and the science of politics. In all countries political science has lagged far behind the data of history since the American and French revolutions, but nowhere has. there been less done and less disposition to do anything in this department than in German universities. With the pos-sible exception of Tübingen, there is no German university that can be compared to Columbia, or even to Yale or Harvard, in respect to the instruction offered in political science. This explains why one seldom meets an English or American student of law in Germany. It is hoped that in a few years the codification of German law will be complete, and that as a result not only less time will be given to the Pandects, but more attention to legal and political history.

The department of medicine is the leading one in the universities, and shows the greatest advance in the last twelve years. If we except philology, which is a section of philosophy, one may say that medicine is the department in which

Germany is best rated. There are at present (1891) a total of 8776 medical students in the universities. Munich is undoubtedly the strongest center. Würzburg and Kiel are also very celebrated as medical schools, more than one-half of their students belonging to this department. Vienna, perhaps the best school in Europe, is pressed closely by Edinburgh, which has as many medical students as Berlin and Leipzig together. Copenhagen, however, promises to be a competitor for the first place, especially so far as faculty and accommodations are concerned.

The philosophical department is to foreigners the center of interest. More than one-half of all foreign students, and at least three-fourths of all American students, are registered under this faculty. Of the 69 American students in Leipzig, 60 are studying under the philosophical faculty, and 34 of these are registered in the section of philosophy. Taking all the universities together, the following order of subjects indicates the interest of the American students: philosophy, philology, natural science, political economy, history, and pedagogy. Of the subjects growing in importance one may mention political economy, geography, ethics, and physiological psychology. In all of these the historical features of the inductive method are emphasized and each contains a large amount of what passes under the general term anthropology. Economics is treated historically and systematically, but much of the so-called systematic work is purely historical, and a close connection is always made between history and politics. Dogmatism and à priori utilitarianism or egoism are not important features of instruction. While political economy has closely associated itself with history, geography has broken away from its Gymnasial bonds and made itself an independent department in most of the larger universities. The same may be said of psychology, which for centuries was mixed up in an indefinable manner with logic and metaphysics. The present effort is to separate psychology from philosophy and make it a purely experimental matter. What the result of this effort will be no one is as yet in a position to declare. For more than a century ped

agogy in Germany has been trying to find a psychological foundation, but with no results that seem very remarkable. The call for better methods is louder than ever before, and difference of opinion as to how they are to be obtained no less rampant. The best work is probably being done in Leipzig, Halle, and Jena. The dualism in Pestalozzi and Herbart seems to disappear in the present chaos. Professor Rein of Jena, who is the head of Herbartianism in Germany, finds no essential antagonism between Herbart and Pestalozzi, and regards their theories as different stages in the history of the same system.

Passing over philology, which on the part of faculties is the strongest and most excellent feature of German universities; passing over history, which is the weakest and avowedly the most unsatisfactory feature, I may notice a few points concerning philosophy in general. In time given, the history of ancient stands to the history of modern philosophy as three to four. But this three-sevenths of time is given entirely to Greek philosophy. Patristic and scholastic philosophy are almost entirely overlooked or ignored. A large part of the time remaining is given to German philosophy. English philosophy from Bacon to Hume, is by no means' neglected, but it is for the most part regarded as an introduction to Spinoza, Leibnitz, and Kant. In systematic philosophy the Germans. give much attention to "Introduction to Philosophy," which is generally followed by logic, psychology, and the history of philosophy. Psychology stands foremost. In some universities it is given eighteen or twenty hours per week, while experimental psychology in Leipzig, Tübingen, and Freiburg allows as much time in the laboratory as the student is able to give. After these subjects, in order of prominence, come epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, history and philosophy of religion, philosophy of law, and æsthetics. It would be difficult to indicate the best universities for the study of philosophy without making some limitations. Heinze and Wundt in Leipzig, Sigwart and Pfleiderer in Tübingen, Windelband and Ziegler in Strassburg, Diels and Paulsen in Berlin, are all leading men in their several departments. These universities,

in connection with what lies nearest to philosophy for the American student, may stand in the above order of merit, but the library advantages of Berlin are so superior that Berlin is justly regarded by many as the best center for independent study. The seminar system, taken up from the Jesuits, has been carried to greater perfection in Germany than in any other land. At present it is by no means peculiar to German universities, although the most valuable feature in them. The subjects most often considered in philosophical seminars appear to be Spinoza, Kant, Aristotle, Schopenhauer, Plato, Locke, and Lotze, and as a rule such seminars are admirably conducted.

In regard to the advantages and disadvantages for American students in German universities there is a great diversity of opinion. My own observations have on the whole made me somewhat skeptical regarding advantages. The argument from economical grounds does not appear to be of much force in favor of Germany. The rise of prices in the last two years has been great enough to alter the conditions which formerly obtained in university towns. If a student will live here as he lives in the eastern part of America, the expense will not be less, save in the item of amusements. It is true that students do live in Germany very inexpensively by submitting to very inferior accommodations. It has been shown that a man and his wife can exist for $600 per year, but such an existence as this entails is quite as possible in Boston or New York. From university statistics and personal inquiry I find that the necessary expenses of a frugal, rational student in Berlin or Leipzig are at least 1821 marks, or about $450. No student should attempt a year in Germany without adding $100 to this amount, and few will find themselves unfettered who do not allow $650 for the entire year. The majority of American students in Germany are there for a definite purpose, are very hard workers, take a high stand among their German fellows, and are favorably regarded by the professors. The general advantages which accrue from foreign study and travel are perhaps greater in Germany than in any other