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tive, is placed below and to the side of the indicative. It lacks the index pointer of the primary mood. The grammars divide the uses of the subjunctive mood into cases of desire and of possibility. I have ventured to symbolize these two cases by hieroglyphic pictures-a heart standing for desire, a falling stone for possibility. This is a return to the primitive mode of written expression, when all words were pictures, and the pictures had not yet been worn away to mere signs. The construction of the diagram symbolizes the mental construction, gives it the material body which seems to be indispensable to definiteness and thoroughness of thought, and associates with the perception of relations an act of volition, by which the relatively faint excitation of the perception becomes broadened, deepened, and diffused in the brain and mind.

The anatomical basis for volition and emotion is really better known than that for ideas proper or their complex combinations. The initial stage of volition is the conception of the end to be attained. This conception is correlated with some nervous process, sustained on the cortex or superficial part of the brain. When a voluntary act is performed, a long tract of fibers is excited-the so-called motor tract, which descends from the ideo-motor region of the cortex to the ganglia at the base of the brain and below it, where the innervations of voluntary muscles originate. When the volition is not at once carried into effect, but remains before consciousness as an intuition, it is supposed that this motor tract is also excited, but less vividly than when an act is performed.

Similarly for emotion, the theories which characterize emotion by the various disturbances in the viscera, in circulation, and in respiration, which are known to accompany strong feeling, may be especially supported by the fact that in the medulla are concentrated nervous foci which preside over all the vital functions; namely, the cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers. Thus, when the pulse or respiration quickens by emotion, we are compelled to assume, as in the case of 4 The now celebrated theory o. Professor James.

volition, that an excitation was diffused throughout the brain, from the cortex to the base. [Fig. 16.]

To secure such massive cerebro-mental action is the fundamental reason for trying to excite feelings, and to suggest voluntary acts to a child, whenever we attempt to generate in his mind a new idea.

I have now drawn this line of thought to a close, and

FIG. 16.

will sum up the three or four propositions I have tried to elucidate. I have only touched upon one or two of the most general psychological aspects of education, and have passed by many that might seem especially to call for discussion. Thus I have left entirely untouched the great fact that the child's mind is an organism in course of evolution; that on this account its processes often differ radically from those of an adult mind; and may often be most fruitfully studied along the lines explored by Romanes, who traces the evolution of mind from the lower animals up. Again, I have hardly alluded to the recent experiments in psycho-physics, which some writers seem inclined to consider the most practical and fruitful part of modern psychology. These experiments investigate, in fractions of a second, the time relations of many cerebromental phenomena, especially acts of perception as modified by the attention of the subject, or the complexity of the recognition required. Other experiments investigate the

quantum relations between stimuli and sensations; and these again as modified by the attention, or experience—that is, by the previous life of the subject.

Themes like these are equally large and special, and it has seemed better to dwell upon a few more fundamental considerations, which may determine the most general attitude of the teacher toward his charge. I will sum up these considerations as follows:

To the self-consciousness of each individual the mind is a cluster of ideas; to every one else, an aggregate of activities. The attempt to impart knowledge to a child means the attempt to introduce a new idea into this cluster, or to excite a new activity in this aggregate.

The fundamental fallacy to which educational effort is liable is that of mistaking the presentation of a verbal statement for the effective generation of an idea.

The generation of a new idea in consciousness constitutes an actual enlargement of the area of an individual being. To have an idea is to live an idea, and, therefore, the more ideas the more life. There is no other way known to us of having more life.

Ideas, in the most general sense, are phases of consciousness. They may be divided into feelings and perceptions. The feelings are of external origin, that is, sensations; or of internal origin, when they are either emotions or volitions.

External

Perceptions are also either external or internal. perceptions result from a fusion in consciousness of sensations, and are directed either to external objects or to the space relations between them. Internal perceptions are directed either to the revived, that is, the ideal, feelings of things, or to the relations between these revived feelings or ideas. When combined they are called concepts.

Relations of time can only be appreciated as feelings of conscious change of personal condition. Outside of ourselves we never know time, but only space. A series of sequences in time, therefore, to be vividly appreciated, must always be expressed as a group of coexistences in space.

The perception of a sensible object, which is the foundation of all knowledge, remains the permanent type of all knowledge. Internal perception of general concepts and abstract ideas can be guided by study of external perception of concrete things.

Two things are essential to each perception: multiplicity of impressions, and their fusion into unity at some focus to which they converge. The fusion of sensations into sense perceptions can be plausibly traced in nerve tracts of the brain. The fusion of perceptions cannot, at present at least, be so traced. We are compelled to speak of a fusion in consciousness, at a mental focus.

Distinct thought always implies fusion of multiple mental impressions into a unique pulse of thought. Each pulse of thought occupies the center area of consciousness for a given moment of existence, however brief.

It is essential that all impressions made from without upon the child's mind should be made to converge into this unity. If no new pulse of thought be generated, the impressions have failed to affect the mind. As is commonly said, either they are not understood, or they are forgotten.

The most comprehensive aim of education is the development of power, the generation of force. The educational subject must be able to think more, feel more, do more than he who is not educated. The efforts of education must constantly be limited by the conditions imposed by heredity, and the amount of nervous energy originally possessed by the child. But within these limits there remains a wide range of possi bility.

NEW YORK.

MARY PUTNAM JACOBI.

II.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF GERMAN

UNIVERSITIES.1

There are in the German Empire twenty-three universities. With a few exceptions these are constituted with four faculties each-theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. Of these exceptions, Popplesdorf has but one faculty, agriculture; Münster and Braunsberg have two, theology and philosophy; Bonn and Breslau have five, theology being divided into Protestant and Catholic; Munich has five, a faculty of political science being added; Tübingen has seven, theology being divided, and faculties of political and natural science being added. Heidelberg has just created a separate faculty of natural science. In the summer semester, 1890, there were in German universities a total number of 29,317 students. The entire teaching force numbered 2437, divided as follows; ordinary or full professors, 1063; extraordinary or associate professors, 524; honorary professors, 63; docenten or tutors, 649; language and sword masters, 138. Thus the entire body of the universities was 31,754, or an average of 1380 persons to each institution. The annual salary which ordinary professors, or heads of departments, receive from the state, varies with different sections, faculties, and universities. In Prussia the average is as follows: In law, 6043 M.; in theology, 5718 M.; in philosophy, 5568 M.; in medicine, 5301 M. But Göttingen pays her law professors 12,600 M., and Berlin her philosophical and theological professors 12,000 and 10,200 M. respectively. To these amounts are to be added the fees collected

1 In addition to personal experience and correspondence, information has been derived chiefly from the Deutscher Universitäts Kalender, published semi-annually by Prof. Dr. F. Ascherson, Berlin; the Akademische Blätter; the Akademische Monatshefte; Kürschner's Staatshandbuch; Statistisches Jahrbuch der höheren Schulen, and the Personal und Vorlesungen Verzeichnisse of the present year. the sources are not always in accord, the results are often approximate only.

As

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