leading with six; Connecticut, Georgia, tainment, and pays all the bills. He exeNorth Carolina, New Hampshire, Ohio, cutes all orders of the Senate relating to Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, any matter of an executive character. He and Vermont each had three; Alabama, is to the Senate what a marshal or a Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, and sheriff is to a court. He is the Senate's Rhode Island each had two; Delaware, executive officer. Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, and New York each had one. The present incumbent (Mr. Frye) is from Maine.

The other important officers of the Senate are the secretary and sergeant-atarms. The secretary, in addition to his responsibility for the official conduct of a large number of clerks, readers, reporters, copyists, and other subordinates about his office, has charge of everything connected with the records, journals, reports, bills, and other documents, papers, and proceedings of the Senate, legislative and executive. The secretary is also a disbursing officer and gives bond for a proper discharge of his duties as such. He receives and pays out more than a million dollars annually. This includes salaries and mileage of Senators, of officers, clerks, and other employés about the Senate. Here are the items summarized in that officer's report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896.

Amounts expended:

Salaries and mileage (of Sena-
tors)

Salary of Vice-President.
Salaries of officers, clerks, etc.
One month's extra pay to offi-
cers and employés..
Salaries Capitol police.
Contingent expenses.

Total

19.392.53 165,920.55

The principal offices of the Senate are honorable as well as responsible. They require a high order of talent combined with good executive ability. Two members of the Senate each afterwards became its secretary. In several instances men who had been members of the House of Representatives have been elected to offices in the Senate.

The number of persons employed in one capacity or another in and about the Senate is over 300. An investigation recently discovered 353, among whom were 121 clerks, fifty-seven messengers, fiftytwo skilled laborers, twenty-three pages, and eighteen folders.

Salaries of Senate officers and employés range as follows: Laborers and pages, $720 to $1,000 a year; messengers and clerks to Senators, $1,440; clerks to committees, $1,800 to $3,000; secretary's chief clerk and the financial clerk, each $3,000; secretary of the Senate, $5,000; sergeant-at-arms, $4,500. The official reporting of the proceedings and debates is done by contract at $25,000 a year.

At the beginning committees of the Senate were appointed only for special duties $467,175.22 -as to wait upon the President, to pre6,000.00 422,852.42 pare a rule for a particular proceeding, to consider a certain matter and report a 40.035.61 bill, etc. The committee first appointed by the Senate consisted of five members to confer with a like committee on the part $1,121,376.33 of the House of Representatives and report rules to govern in cases of conference between the two Houses. They were also to "take under consideration the manner of electing chaplains." There was some feeling on the chaplaincy question, but the choice of men of different religious denominations-one for the House, the other for the Senate-disposed of the matter satisfactorily.

The sergeant-at-arms, with his corps of assistants, has charge of the Senate wing of the Capitol building. He takes care of the Senate chamber and all the property in it, and of the various rooms, halls, and other apartments and annexes. He purchases all their furniture and other equipments. He attends to all the details of great occasions in and about the hall of the Senate-inaugurations and the like, and he or one of his assistants accompanies every Senate committee that travels by order of the Senate. He arranges for their transportation and enter

Gradually, as the lines of legislative procedure became marked, and as the business of Congress grew in magnitude and variety, it was found necessary as well as convenient to appoint standing committees to hold during the pleasure

of the Senate for the consideration of doors.* By agreement the Senators arclassified subjects. There are now forty- ranged themselves in a semi-circle in front nine standing committees of the Senate, of which one has fifteen members; six consist of thirteen members each; twelve have each eleven members; eleven have nine members; four have seven; four have five; and five have three. The others have even numbers and are subject to changes. There are also ten select committees.

Following the practice of the Conti- the Gallatin contested election case), until nental Congress and the Constitutional to open the doors at the beginning of the on Feb. 20, 1794, when a resolution passed Convention, the Senate sat with closed next session.

has performed that service ever since, though the rule providing for the reception of the President, when he calls on the Senate officially, is still preserved and is now in force.

The committee's report was never informed that body when he would apadopted. The early practice was con- pear, as he did on several occasions, and tinued. When the clerk of the House conferred with the Senate in respect to appears inside the door of the Senate treaties and appointments. This pracchamber with a message, the fact is an- tice did not long continue, however. The nounced by the doorkeeper thus: "Mes- President's private secretary soon came sage from the House of Representatives," to be the bearer of his messages, and he when business is temporarily suspended, and the president recognizing "Mr. Clerk," that officer, bowing and addressing the chair, says: "I am directed to inform the Senate that the House has passed," a certain bill or resolution, The first message of President Washingor whatever may be the nature of the in- ton was delivered by himself orally in an formation to be communicated. Having address before both Houses, and each thus spoken, he delivers the paper, or House, following the custom of the Britpapers, to the doorkeeper and politely ish Parliament, prepared and delivered retires. The document is then delivered an answer to the address. to the secretary or his chief clerk, and business is resumed.

The same simple proceeding is had when the President's private secretary appears with a message from the executive. On being announced and recognized by the chair, he says: "I am directed by the President of the United States to deliver a message in writing," or "to announce his approval" of a certain bill, or whatever may have been the President's action on a particular matter.

The Senate communicates with the President through its secretary or by a special committee of its members.

The next subject involving questions of official etiquette which the Senate at the beginning had to determine was: "What style or title it will be proper to annex to the offices of President and Vice-President," and a committee was appointed to consider the matter. The subject was discussed frequently from April 23 until May 14, and many different titles were suggested, as "his Highness," "his Excellency," etc. The committee finally reported in favor of "his Highness, the President of the United States of America and Protector of the Rights of the Same." But the House of Representatives favored the simple language of the Constitution, "The President of the United States," and that has been the form of address ever since.

At first, executive communications were delivered to the Senate by cabinet officers, and when the President wished to communicate in person with the Senate, he

The first code of rules adopted for the government of the Senate was severely disciplinarian. One of them required that "inviolable secrecy shall be observed with respect to all matters transacted in the Senate while the doors are shut, or as often as the same is enjoined from the chair." The last one provided that:

"These rules shall be engrossed on parchment and hung up in some conspicuous part of the Senate chamber. And every Senator who shall neglect attendance during a session, absent himself without leave, or withdraw for more than a quarter of an hour without permission after a quorum is formed, shall be guilty of disorderly behavior, and his gression, shall be written on a slip of paper name, together with the nature of the transand annexed to the bottom of the rules, there to remain until the Senate, on his application or otherwise, shall take order on the same."

Attention, order, and manly bearing, with resulting ease and dignity in speech, were so highly prized by these our first Senators, that seven of their rules of procedure related to personal deportment of members of the body during session hours.

Looking back from this distance, it seems strange that such rigid rules were deemed necessary among gentlemen so punctilious as they. Congress met in Philadelphia the next year and a newspaper writer of that city thus described the Senate's decorum:

"Among the Senators is observed constantly during the debates the most delightful silence, the most beautiful order, gravity,

and personal dignity of manner. They all appear every morning, full powdered and dressed in the richest material.

The very

If he

does not conclude to-day he may proceed to-morrow and continue the next day.

atmosphere of the chamber seems to Inspire Senator who desires to speak upon it has wisdom, mildness, and condescension. Should had an opportunity to be heard. any of the Senators so far forget for a moment as to be the cause of a protracted whisper while another was addressing the Vice-President, three gentle raps with his silver pencil-case by Mr. Adams immediately restored everything to repose and the most respectful attention."

No

And from this courtesy among Senators it sometimes happens that a small matter is the occasion of long, able, and powerful debate on questions in no way related to the pending proposition. harm has come from this. On the contrary, it has been instructive and helpful. Every great discussion in the Senate has served to enlarge the horizon of liberty and to strengthen the foundations of the republic. As an example take this: In January, 1830, Mr. Foote, a Senator from

These rules were amended and modified from time to time as occasion and experience suggested, and in 1806 a new code was adopted, retaining such of the old as had proven to be suitable for the work of the Senate. The revision included forty rules, the exact number now in force. The most important change from the old code was the omission of Connecticut, offered a resolution instructthe "previous question." Under the operation of that rule a majority of a quorum could at any time stop a debate. The rule was not popular. Only four times in sixteen years had it been invoked, and in one of the instances it was ruled out of order because the matter pending was a preamble and not a substantive proposition.

ing the committee on public lands to inquire and report certain facts relating to the public domain.

Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri, speaking to the resolution, criticised the Eastern people, because, as he believed, they were disposed to prevent emigration to the Western States and Territories, and would be aided in their efforts by stopping sales of the public lands there. This brought Daniel Webster to the defence of New England, and in his answer to Mr. Benton he alleged that the author of the ordinance of 1787, which opened a vast region of the West to settlement and dedicated the Northwest Territory to freedom, was an Eastern man. Discussing the wisdom of that measure, he referred to the prevailing customs in the South,

There have been several attempts to restore the rule, in substance at least, notably in 1841 by Henry Clay, in 1850 by Stephen A. Douglas, in 1870 by Hannibal Hamlin and Henry Wilson; and the subject has been brought to the attention of the Senate occasionally since, when some measure was vigorously urged and persistently opposed, as in the case of the bill to repeal the purchasing clause of the silver law, at the extraordinary and made comparisons distasteful to session in 1893.

The effect of dropping the previous question has been to broaden the scope of debate and this sometimes provokes unfavorable criticism outside the chamber as well as inside; but it is questionable whether it ever will be, or ought to be, restored.

Senators from the slave-holding States. Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, defended his people and arraigned those of the East in a long and able speech.

Mr. Hayne's speech was delivered on Jan. 21. On the 26th, Mr. Webster replied in an argument which has become historic.

Inspired by this battle of giants, Mr. Calhoun, who was then Vice-President, resigned that position that he might enter the Senate as a member, and in July next following he delivered a speech discussing not anything then before the body, but the argument delivered by Mr. Webster six months before.

Without the spur of the previous question the Senate has become more patient and conservative than it was in the beginning. It is nowhere recorded in the proceedings of the Senate, since the century began, that any member of the body was denied the privilege of speaking to any important matter pending. A vote on the main question can be reached only Following this, at the next session of by unanimous consent, and that is never Congress, came the famous free trade given on any great question until every report of the committee on ways and

means, followed by the nullification pro- "any speech or debate" in the Senate ceedings of 1832 and the compromise tariff they "shall not be questioned in any other act of 1833, and eighteen years afterwards place." by the compromise measures of 1850, and in 1852 by the adoption of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 1798-99, as the creed of the Democratic party, supplemented by the slave-holders' rebellion in 1861--all bearing close and direct relation to what was said in the Senate in the discussion following the introduction of Mr. Foote's modest resolution proposing to inquire whether it would not be wise to temporarily limit the sale of public lands. Speeches of Senators on important subjects are, in most cases, prepared carefully in advance, reduced to writing and read by the author from manuscript. It is very seldom that a Senator proceeds in a great effort without copious notes, if his speech is not in writing or print before him.

In order to maintain the relative power of parties in the Senate and in order that no Senator need "lose his vote," a custom prevails by which members of opposing parties form themselves into "pairs," and if one of a "pair" is absent when a vote is taken, the other does not vote.

All confidential communications from the President of the United States are considered in secret executive sessions, and all treaties laid before the Senate, and all remarks, votes, and proceedings thereon are kept secret, under the thirty-sixth rule. The fourth clause of this rule provides that "any Senator or officer of the Senate who shall disclose the secret or confidential business or proceedings of the Senate shall be liable, if a Senator, to expulsion from the body; and if an officer, to dismissal from the service of the Senate, and to punishment for contempt."

The injunction of secrecy may be removed, in any given case, by a resolution of the Senate. This is not often done, however, but newspaper reporters have become so expert in their profession that they publish fairly accurate statements of what was said and done in executive sessions of the Senate.

In all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, Senators are privileged from arrest during their attendance at the sessions of the Senate, and in going to and returning from the same, and for

From the beginning it has been the custom to allow newspapers to be paid for out of the " contingent fund," which is a fund to be applied to special uses under the exclusive control of the Senate—as stationery, select committee expenses, etc. At first the number of papers which Senators allowed themselves was limited to three each. Stationery was used without limit until 1868, when the amount allowed to each Senator was fixed at $125 a session for newspapers and stationery. It was subsequently changed to $125 a year, and that is the rule now. If more than that amount is drawn the difference is paid in cash by the Senator; if less is drawn he receives the difference in money.

Senators are privileged to send through the mails, free of charge, any public document printed by order of Congress and official letters to any officer of the government.

Each Senator is entitled to one copy of every government publication, and he may have it bound in half-morocco or material no more expensive.

No person is admitted to the floor of the Senate chamber while the body is in session or during the fifteen minutes immediately preceding the hour of meeting, except the following: The President of the United States and his private secretary, the President and Vice-President-elect, exPresidents and ex-Vice-Presidents, judges of the Supreme Court, ex-Senators and Senators-elect, the officers and employés of the Senate in the discharge of their official duties, ex-secretaries and ex-sergeants-at-arms of the Senate, members of the House of Representatives, and members-elect, ex-speakers of the House of Representatives, the sergeant-at-arms and his chief deputy, and the clerk of the House and his deputy, heads of the executive departments, ambassadors and ministers of the United States, governors of States and Territories, the general commanding the army, the senior admiral of the navy on the active list, members of national legislatures of foreign countries, judges of the court of claims, commissioners of the District of Columbia, the librarian of Congress and the assistant