gender." ""None of them have different endings for the numbers.” LOWTH's Introduction. "None of their productions are extant." BLAIR.

We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the adjective pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them intelligibly: but it is difficult, perhaps impracticable, to define and divide them in a manner perfectly unexceptionable. Some of them, in particular, may seem to require a different arrangement. We presume however, that, for every useful purpose, the present classification is sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, except the personal and relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, be considered as definitive pronouns, because they define or ascertain the extent of the common name, or general term, to which they refer, or are joined; but as each class of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a manner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to this circumstance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, and the understanding of learners.

It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that the words this, that, any, some, such, his, their, our, &c. are pronouns, when they are used separately from the nouns to which they relate; but that, when they are joined to those nouns, they are not to be considered as belonging to this species of words; because, in this association, they rather ascertain a substantive, than supply the place of one. They assert that, in the phrases, "give me that," "this is John's," and "such were some of you," the words in italics are pronouns; but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns; "this book is instructive," "some boys are ingenious,"" my health is declining,"" our hearts are deceitful," &c. Other grammarians think, that all these words are pure adjectives; and that none of them can properly be called pronouns; as the genuine pronoun stands by itself, without the aid of a noun expressed or understood. They are of opinion, that in the expressions, "Give me that," "this is John's," &c. the noun is always understood, and must be supplied in the mind of the reader: as, "Give me that book;" "this book is John's;" "and such persons were some persons amongst you."

Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should be classed into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under the former, they include the personal and the relative; under the latter, all the others. But this division, though a neat one, does not appear to be accurate. All the relative pronouns will not range under the substantive head.-We have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode which we think most correct and intelligible: but, for the information of students, and to direct their inquiries on the subject, we state the different opinions of several judicious grammarians. See the Octavo Grammar on these points.

E

CHAPTER VI.

OF VERBS.

SECTION I. Of the nature of Verbs in general. A VERB is a word which significs to BE, to Do, or to surFER; as, “I am, I rule, I am ruled."

Verbs are of three kinds; ACTIVE, PASSIVE, and neuter They are also divided.into REGUlar, irregular, and DE

FECTIVE.

A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon : as, to love; "I love Penelope."

A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering or the receiving of an action; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon: as, to be loved; "Penelope is loved by me."

A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being: as, "I am, I sleep, I sit."*

The verb active is also called transitive, because the action passes over to the object, or has an effect upon some other thing: as, "The tutor instructs his pupils," "I esteem the man."

Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransitives, because the effect is confined within the subject, and does not pas over to any object: as, "I sit, he lives, they sleep."

Soine of the verbs that are usually ranked among neuters, make a near approach to the nature of a verb active; but they may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive: as, to run, to walk, to fly, &c. The rest are more obviously neuter, and more clearly expressive of a middle state between action and passion: as, to stand, to lie, to sleep, &c.

In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a neuter signification, the construction only determining of which kind they are: as, to flatten, signifying to make even or level, is a verb active; but when it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter.

* Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds. 1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passed from the agent to some object: as, Cesar conquered Pompey.

2d. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, which has no effect upon any thing beyond the agent himself: as, Cesar walked.

3. Passive, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing or painful as Portia was loved; Pompey was conquered.

4th. Neuter, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in action nor passion: as, Cesar stood.

This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active-intran◄ sitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner: for the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive, is easy and obvious; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and intransitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed, often very difficult to be ascertained.

A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a compound active verb. To smile is a neuter verb; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be construed as a passive verb. We cannot say, she smiled him, or, he was smiled. But to smile on being a compound active verb, we properly say, she smiled on him; he was smiled on by fortune in every undertaking.

Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help of which the English verbs are principally conjugated. They are, do, be, have, shali, will, may, can, with their variations : and let and must, which have no variation.*

In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which signi fies to be, to do, or to suffer, &c. we have included every thing, either expressly or by necessary consequence, that is essential to its nature, and nothing that is not essential to it. This definition is warranted by the authority of Dr. Lowth, and of many other respectable writers on grammar. There are, however, some grammarians, who consider assertion as the essence of the verb. But, as the participle and the infinitive, if included in it, would prove insuperable objections to their scheme, they have, without hesitation, denied the former a place in the verb, and declared the latter to be merely an abstract noun. This appears to be going rather too far in support of an hypothesis. It seems to be incumbent on these grammarians, to reject also the imperative mood. What part of speech would they make the verbs in the following sentence? "Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins." Will it be said, that the verbs in these phrases are assertions?

In reply to these questions, it has been said, that "Depart instantly," is an expression equivalent to, "I desire you to depart instantly," and that as the latter phrase implies affirmation or assertion, so does the former. But, supposing the phrases to be exactly alike in sense, the reasoning is not conclusive. 1st. In the latter phrase, the only part implying affirmation, is, "I desire." The words "to depart," are in the infinitive mood, and contain no assertion: they affirm nothing. 2d. The position is not teuable, that "Equivalence in sense implies similarity in grammatical nature." It proves too much, and therefore nothing. This mode of reasoning would confound the acknowledged grammatical distinction of words. A pronoun, on this principle, may be proved to be a noun; a noun, a verb; an adverb, a noun and preposition; the superlative degree, the comparative; the imperative mood, the indicative; the future tense, the present; and so on: because they may respectively be resolved into similar meanings. Thus, in the sentence, "I desire you to depart," the words to depart, may be called a noun, because they are equivalent in sense to the noun departure, in the following sen

Let, as a principal verb, has lettest and letteth; but as a helping verb, it admits of no variation.

tence, "I desire your departure." The words "depart instantly," may be proved to be, not the imperative mood with an adverb, but the indicative and infinitive, with a noun and preposition; for they are equivalent to "I desire you to depart in an instant.' The superlative degree in this sentence, "Of all acquirements virtue is the most valuable," may pass for the comparative, because it conveys the same sentiment as, "Virtue is more valuable than every other acquirement.”

We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the reader must be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the equivalent sentence, implies affirmation; and that one phrase may, in sense, be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature is essentially different.

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and TENSE.

SECTION II. Of Number and Person.

Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. as, “I run, we run,” &c.

In each number there are three persons; as,

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to express, or agree with, different persons of the same number: as, "I love, thou lovest; he loveth, or loves:" and also to express different numbers of the same person: as, "thou lovest, ye love; he loveth, they love." In the plural number of the verb, there is no variation of ending to express the different persons; and the verb, in the three persons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. Yet this scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all the purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from it: the verb being always attended, either with the noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the pronoun representing it. For this reason, the plural termination in en, they loven, they weren, formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete.

SECTION III. Of Moods and Participles.

Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is represented.

The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly explained to the scholar, by observing, that it consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signify various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances of action: which explanation, if compared with the following account and uses of the different moods, will be found to agree with and illustrate them.

There are five moods of verbs, the INDICATIVE, the I PERATIVE, the POTENTIAL, the SUBJUNCTIVE, and the INFINITIVE.

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing: as, "He loves, he is loved:" or it asks a question: "Does he love?" "Is he loved ?" ·

as,

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, "Depart thou; mind y ye; let us stay; go in peace.

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite nature, even in the humblest supplications of an inferior being to one who is infinitely his superior: as, "Give us this day our daily bread; and forgive us our trespasses."

The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, power, will, or obligation: as, "It may rain; he may go or stay, I can ride; he would walk; they should learn.'

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c.; and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by another verb: as, "I will respect him, though he chide me;" "Were he good, he would be happy;" that is, "if he were good." See note 8 to Rule 19.

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person; as, "to act, to speak, to be feared."

The participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives its name from its participating, not only of the properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective: as, "I am de sirous of knowing him," " admired and applauded, he became vain," "Having finished his work, he submitted it,"

&c.

There are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, loving, loved, having loved."-See p. 72.

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we have represented the present participle, as active; and the past, as passive: but they are not uniformly so: the present is sometimes passive; and the past is frequently active. Thus, "The youth was consuming by a slow malady," "The Indian was burning by the cruelty of his enemies," appear to be instances of the present participle being used passively. "He has instructed me;" I have gratefully repaid his kindness;" are examples of the